SPEAKER_00: Amazing, fascinating stories of inventions, ideas and innovations. Yes, this is the podcast about the things that have helped to shape our lives. Podcasts from the BBC World Service are supported by advertising.
SPEAKER_03: Well, well, well, shopping for a car? Yep. Carvana made financing a car as smooth as can be.
SPEAKER_02: Oh, yeah? I got pre-qualified instantly and had real terms personalised just for me. Doesn't get much smoother than that.
SPEAKER_02: Well, I got to browse thousands of car options on Carvana, all within my budget. Doesn't get much smoother than that.
SPEAKER_02: It does. I actually wanted a car that seemed out of my range, but I was able to add a co-signer and found my dream car. It doesn't get much... Oh, it gets smoother. It's getting delivered tomorrow.
SPEAKER_03: Visit Carvana.com or download the app to get pre-qualified today. 50 things that made the modern economy with Tim Harford.
SPEAKER_01: Not far from my house is Oxford's Ashmolean Museum, home to art and antiquities from around the world. I often find myself slipping down the stairs to the grand basement. And because I'm an economist, I bypass the cafe and head instead to the Money Gallery next to it. You can see coins from Rome, the Vikings, the Abbasid Caliphate and closer to home from medieval Oxfordshire and Somerset. But while it seems obvious that the Money Gallery would be full of coins, most money isn't in the form of coins at all. The trouble is that most of our monetary history hasn't survived in a form that could grace a museum. In fact, in 1834, the British government decided to destroy 600 years of precious monetary artefacts. It was a decision that was to have unfortunate consequences in more ways than one. The artefacts in question were humble sticks of willow wood, about 20 centimetres long, called exchequer tallies. The willow was harvested along the banks of the River Thames, not far from the Palace of Westminster in central London. Tallies were a way of recording debts with a system that was sublimely simple and effective. The stick would contain a record of the debt carved into the wood. It might save, for example, £9, 4 shillings, 4 pence from Falk Bassett for the farm of Wickham. Falk Bassett, by the way, might sound like a character from Star Wars but was in fact a Bishop of London in the 13th century. He owed his debt to King Henry III. Now comes the elegant part. The stick would be split in half, down its length from one end to the other. The debtor would retain half, called the foil. The creditor would retain the other half, called the stock. Even today, British bankers use the word stocks to refer to debts of the British government. Because willow has a natural and distinctive grain, the two halves would match only each other. Of course, the Treasury could simply have kept a record of these transactions in a ledger somewhere. But the tally stick system enabled something radical to occur. If you had a tally stock showing that Bishop Bassett owed you £5, then unless you worried that Bishop Bassett wasn't good for the money, the tally stock itself was worth close to £5 in its own right. If you wanted to buy something, you might well find that the seller would be pleased to accept the tally stock as a safe and convenient form of payment. The tally sticks became a kind of money. And a particularly instructive kind of money too, because the tally stick shows us clearly what money really is. It's debt. A particular kind of debt, one that can be traded freely, circulating from person to person until it's utterly separated from Bishop Bassett and a farm in Wickham. We don't have a good sense of whether tally sticks were in fact widely traded or not, for reasons that will become clear. But we know that similar debts were traded, some surprisingly recently. On Monday 4th May 1970, the Irish Independent, Ireland's leading newspaper, published a matter of fact notice with a straightforward title. Closure of Banks. Every major bank in Ireland was closed and would remain closed until further notice. The banks were in dispute with their own employees. The employees had voted to strike and it seemed likely that the whole business would drag on for weeks or even months. You might think that such news in what was one of the world's more advanced economies would inspire utter panic. But the Irish remained calm. They had been expecting trouble, so had been stockpiling reserves of cash. But what kept the Irish economy going was something else. The Irish wrote each other cheques. Now at first sight this makes no sense. Cheques are paper based instructions to transfer money from one bank account to another. But if both banks are closed then the instruction to transfer money can't be carried out. Not until the banks open anyway. But everyone in Ireland knew that might not happen for months. Nevertheless, the Irish wrote each other cheques. And those cheques would circulate. Patrick would write a cheque for £20 to clear his tab at the local pub. The publican might then use that cheque to pay his staff or his suppliers. Patrick's cheque would circulate around and around a promise to pay £20 that couldn't be fulfilled until the banks reopened and started clearing the backlog. The system was fragile. It was clearly open to abuse by people who wrote cheques they knew would eventually bounce. As May dragged past, then June, then July, there was always the risk that people lost track of their own finances too and started unknowingly writing cheques they couldn't afford and wouldn't be able to honour. Perhaps the biggest risk of all was that trust would start to fray. That people would simply start refusing to accept cheques as payments. Yet the Irish kept writing each other cheques. It must have helped that so much Irish business was small and local. People knew their customers. They knew who was good for the money. Word would get around about people who cheated. And the pubs and corner shops were able to vouch for the credit worthiness of their customers, which meant that cheques could circulate. When the dispute was resolved and the banks reopened in November, more than six months after they'd closed, the Irish economy was still in one piece. The only problem? The backlog of £5 billion worth of cheques. That's nearly $100 billion in today's money. It would take another three months to clear. Nor is the Irish case the only one in which cheques were passed around without ever being cashed in. In the 1950s, British soldiers stationed in Hong Kong would pay their bills with cheques on accounts back in England. The local merchants would circulate the cheques, vouching for them with their own signatures, without any great hurry to cash them in. Effectively, the Hong Kong cheques, like the Irish cheques and like the tally sticks, had become a form of private money. If money is simply tradable debt, then tally sticks and uncashed Irish cheques weren't some weird form of quasi-money. They were money. They were simply money in a particularly unvarnished form. Like an engine running with the cover off, or a building with the scaffolding still up, they're money with the underlying mechanism laid bare. Of course we still naturally think of money as those disks of metal in the Ashmolean Museum. After all, it's the metal that survives, not the cheques or the tally sticks. Those tally sticks, by the way, met an unfortunate end. The tally stick system was finally abolished and replaced by paper ledgers in 1834, after decades of attempts to modernise. To celebrate, it was decided to burn the sticks, six centuries of irreplaceable monetary records, in a coal-fired stove in the House of Lords, rather than letting parliamentary staff take them home for firewood. Now burning a cartload or two of tally sticks in a coal-fired stove is a wonderful way to start a raging chimney fire. So it was that the House of Lords, then the House of Commons, then almost the entire Palace of Westminster, a building as old as the tally stick system itself, were burned to the ground. Perhaps the patron saints of monetary history were having their revenge.
SPEAKER_03: Please see bbcworldservice.com slash 50things.
