SPEAKER_04: Some companies are big, others are small. To Robert Half, their hiring needs are equally huge. At Robert Half, our specialized recruiting professionals elevate their expertise with proprietary AI tools to transform candidate discovery, assessment, and selection. Whether sourcing talent locally or in any geography that works for you, Robert Half can pinpoint hard-to-find candidates in finance and accounting, technology, marketing and creative, legal, and administrative and customer support. At Robert Half, we know talent. Learn more at roberthalf.com slash invisible. Squarespace is the all-in-one platform for building your brand and growing your business online. Stand out with a beautiful website, engage with your audience, and sell anything. Your products, content you create, and even your time. You can easily display posts from your social profiles on your website or share new blogs or videos to social media. Automatically push website content to your favorite channels so your followers can share it too. Go to squarespace.com slash invisible for a free trial and when you're ready to launch, use the offer code invisible to save 10% off your first purchase of a website or domain. This is 99% Invisible. I'm Roman Mars. Brian Merchant is a tech reporter and he'd been covering the industry for years when he started to notice this term that kept coming up.
SPEAKER_03: Especially when we would report something critical about technology, we would get charges of being Luddites. Like most people, Brian knew, at least vaguely, what this term Luddite meant.
SPEAKER_04: If we know them at all, we usually know them by this derogatory light.
SPEAKER_03: We usually understand the Luddites to be technophobes or people who hate technology. And there had always been this kind of term that had just sort of lodged itself into the general consciousness. But as time went on and as Brian watched tech grow into the disruptive behemoth it is today, he started to get more curious about the actual Luddites.
SPEAKER_04: Who were these people whose name gets thrown around so often today in our conversations about new technology? And what did they actually believe? One day I just sort of decided to dig into the term and very quickly I stumbled upon an academic paper about how they weren't dolts or just confused malcontents.
SPEAKER_03: They were a powerful organization with some very, very good points about why they were upset about technology. And they had a very good case to make against how technology was exploiting them. The story is so much more complex, so much more nuanced, and if anything we should be sympathetic to the Luddites. Especially given all the lessons that we can learn about them and how they sort of illuminate a lot of the crises still ongoing today. Brian has a new book out about the Luddites with a very metal title. It's called Blood in the Machine.
SPEAKER_04: And it explores how English textile workers in the 19th century rose up against the growing trend of automation and the machines that were threatening their livelihoods. The history feels honestly a little too relevant today. And so we wanted to have Brian on the show to tell us what we can learn from the original Luddites. So let's set the scene. In your book you say that the textile industry was sort of the first to be automated. So could you describe like what was textile work like before automated machines? So it varied a lot, but textile work was often sort of what today we would kind of understand to be good sort of middle class work.
SPEAKER_03: A lot of times the cloth workers would work at home. They were some of the first work from home proponents in that sense. They would usually work about 30 hours a week. They could take breaks when they wanted. They could walk in their gardens. A lot of them had little farms to provide a little extra subsistence or a little extra value. The children would help spin the yarn. It was a family affair. They would sing. You know, it was hard work. It wasn't always totally great. They would haggle with the merchants who would come to buy the cloth, but they could work on their own terms. And they really built these communities. It was this way for 200 years. And it had really sort of brought together a bunch of traditions and norms and standards that until sort of the late 1700s, when you started to see some new trends begin to impinge on that, that they had a very well established sort of nice lifestyle.
SPEAKER_04: And those trends that you're talking about, they involved the introduction of a bunch of new machines that automated the weaving work that humans have been doing for hundreds of years. And perhaps the most significant of those machines was the power loom. Could you tell us about it?
SPEAKER_03: Yeah, it's a device that automates the process of weaving itself, something that a lot of people thought was impossible for a long time because weaving was such skilled work. But the power loom, once connected to a power source like water or steam, it could automate the process of weaving and just producing the goods in the first place. And that is a big deal. There are hundreds of thousands of weavers. More than any in any of these other trades, the biggest sort of industrial workforce in England at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. So huge, huge number of jobs stand to be automated. And when people start to get angry about this, there aren't even that many power looms in operation. It's the idea. It's the fact that they're there, that entrepreneurs are beginning to use them, promising to use them. It's the long shadow that these things cast that really irks people.
SPEAKER_04: So you described these technological innovations that led to increasing automation, but there was also the rise of just the factory as a space where production happens, right? So can you tell us a little bit more about that? So the factory was still kind of a novel concept at the time that you could organize labor more efficiently if you gathered it all under one roof, under one overseer, and just start lining the place with machines.
SPEAKER_03: And this had not been done before the 1700s in a meaningful way. So when it started happening, it immediately caused alarm bells to ring among cloth workers everywhere who saw pretty viscerally what their lives were going to look like in the future if this mode of work took over their industry. I mean, it sounds like the factory itself is almost as important as any one of these new machines, like when it comes to changing the dynamics of work at the time.
SPEAKER_04: 100 percent, yeah. In fact, the Luddites and the people who would become Luddites had a saying, and that was what they hated most of all was to quote unquote stand at their command.
SPEAKER_03: They hated this idea of becoming subservient to anyone, to an overseer, to a factory boss when they lived their whole lives with autonomy, you know, working hard, but with flexibility and with dignity. If they had to stand at the command of somebody else, all that was out the window. It's the difference between working at home with your family, with your friends, taking breaks to walk in the garden, and sitting in a six-story building with whirring machinery and cloth fiber choking your lungs and somebody telling you when you can and cannot stand up to take a break.
SPEAKER_04: One of the things I was really surprised by in your book is the role of that automation plate in creating child labor. Could you talk about that and why one led to the other?
SPEAKER_03: Yeah. So you don't need as much skill to run these new machines. And so one thing you could do is you can hire children, women, hard-up weavers who used to be more gainfully employed. And in these conditions that are sort of out of the public eye, they're these great big buildings, and they were purposefully built outside of major towns and cities because they knew people would both protest the jobs that they were taking. And soon enough, they knew that they would protest the conditions inside. And it's truly dangerous, brutal work. Their limbs are lost frequently. Children are pulled into the machines. Disease would spread through the dormitories. And so many children died that they had to ship them out of town and distribute them to different unmarked gravesites because they were afraid they would attract too much attention if they started filling in these mass graves right next to it. Truly awful, truly awful disturbing stuff. And that is one thing that cloth workers, the middle class, everywhere is seeing. And they're saying, this is what the factory does. This is what automated machinery is leading us to. It's doing this to the most vulnerable of us, but we're all vulnerable here.
SPEAKER_04: So we see this rising discontent about automation. So from there, how did the Luddite movement begin? And when does it start to coalesce? So at the end of the 1700s, in response to the French Revolution, a lot of the British working class start to build a class consciousness and start to sort of agitate for reform and better conditions.
SPEAKER_03: The crown responds in quite an authoritarian manner. And one important thing they do is they ban the act of combining or organizing or forming a union, as we would understand it today. So that option is off the table. Workers cannot agitate collectively for change. That is illegal. They can be brought in and arrested if they do that. So as we enter the first decade of the 1800s and we start to see those big factories spring up buying machinery, the workers don't have that option of coming together and saying, hey, how are we going to deal with this? They try to anyways. So they form this nebulous trade organization. They go to parliament. They say, hey, these entrepreneurs are wrecking our trade. They are ignoring laws that are on the books. Can we deal with this? Can we deal with this in a democratic way so that we all benefit a little bit from this new immense economic boom that's happening. And so it doesn't just get concentrated all at the top and we're just off their whims and they get denied. And finally, the British parliament at the time just says, we've had enough of this. They wipe all those regulations off the books. So now they don't even have nominal regulations or laws to appeal to. You know, they go to their employers. They say, hey, let's work out some deals. Let's find a way that we can sort of introduce this technology more gradually so it's not so sudden. They get rebuffed there, too. So it sounds like workers are trying to stay ahead of this trend towards automation. Like they're trying to push back, but they're just not having much success.
SPEAKER_04: Yeah. And finally, at the end of the decade, around 1809, 1810, we have this sort of crisis point when the entrepreneur class recognizes that they have an advantage and they can sweep in and they begin introducing this automated machinery.
SPEAKER_03: And that is the final spark that lights this big flame.
SPEAKER_04: So let's talk about the name Luddite. It comes from this character named Ned Ludd. Who is he? Ned Ludd was a mythic and probably apocryphal figure. It's unclear where the name sort of came from first, although there's been a lot of speculation.
SPEAKER_03: If you say Ned Ludd, Robin Hood, Ned Ludd, Robin Hood, it's kind of in the same vein. And Ned Ludd originates in Nottingham, right next to Sherwood Forest. So there's the spirit of rebellion. But the first time that Ned Ludd appears is in a newspaper article that sort of details this this backstory of an apprentice named Ned Ludd, who was a boy forced to work on a machine. He didn't want to do his work because he's a boy, but the magistrate demands that he be whipped because he's not being productive enough. So the factory owner who's overseeing him whips him, Ned Ludd revolts, smashes the machine with a hammer and flees into the forest. This is the legend of Ned Ludd, and it's either created or adopted by the cloth workers who in 1811 finally decide that they've had enough and they organize a rebellion against the factory owners.
SPEAKER_04: So this marks the beginning of the Luddite movement and their hallmark becomes that they destroy machines in the same way the mythical Ned Ludd did. Exactly. Their campaign is very organized, very pointed, very specific. First, what these followers of Ludd would do is they would send a letter, a threatening letter to a local entrepreneur or factory owner.
SPEAKER_03: And they would say, if you don't take down these machines that you are using in this way, you're going to get a visit from Ned Ludd's army and it would be signed by Ned Ludd or General Ludd or King Ludd. And sure enough, if the entrepreneur didn't take down the machines, they would be targeted by a nighttime raid. They would either slip in through the windows and smash the machines that were doing the automation. And it's important to point they would only smash those machines. There were a number of machines that had been used for a long time. Those machines would not be broken. Hand limbs not broken. They would smash the wide frames. They would smash the gig mills and the shearing frames, not those that had been used for hundreds of years. And then they would file out under the darkness of night. They were famous for brandishing the great blacksmith's hammer and they would call it Enoch. The hammers themselves were made by James and Enoch Taylor, who were blacksmiths that were also building automating machinery. So they had a saying and that saying would go, Enoch made them, Enoch shall break them. And it was this great giant hammer.
SPEAKER_04: So this first Luddite raid happens in Nottingham in 1811. How does the movement spread from there? Yeah, I think one of the most interesting things about the Luddite movement is that it is a truly decentralized movement.
SPEAKER_03: It's an early sort of innovation, really, in this mode of sort of cell-based organizing. There was a well-organized sort of network of Luddites in and around Nottingham. That came first. And they met with fairly astonishing success. So they would sneak into the factories, break the machines, and people cheered. Once they saw that public reaction was so good, they would do it again and they got increasingly brazen. Soon there were raids in broad daylight as the crowds of the city would come out and cheer. So it's clear pretty early on that there's a lot of popular sentiment in favor of Luddism. And so you see Luddite cells start to crop up in various places, even where it's not clear that they were, you know, in touch. In the beginning, it really was truly a decentralized movement, something like Occupy Wall Street or Black Lives Matter. We might be analogous to that today. So who were some of the most important Luddite leaders who emerged during this time? What drove them to the movement?
SPEAKER_03: So the interesting thing about Luddites is that they left very little trace. What we know about Luddites is largely through the letters they sent, the complaints and descriptions passed down through the magistrates that fought them, the newspaper writers of the day, and, you know, through what was passed down through oral tradition. We do know a handful of the Luddite leadership, and the most famous is George Mellor. George Mellor had recently finished his apprenticeship as a cloth finisher or a cropper at the time that the entrepreneurs were starting to use automated machinery. So you can kind of imagine a young man going, ah, I finished my apprenticeship. Now I can sort of embark on the world. And then seeing a factory spring up outside town and say, actually, we're going to do that work for you, and you're not going to get paid anything anymore. So he is particularly incensed by all of this. So he agitates for this organized rebellion after Nottingham. So Nottingham comes first. It's an inspiration to cloth workers everywhere, and George Mellor is reading these accounts in the newspaper and saying, we need to do this here. And so what was the government's reaction to the Luddites? So they're gaining this popularity. They're becoming heroes, and people are cheering them on even in broad daylight.
SPEAKER_04: What happens in terms of parliament?
SPEAKER_03: So the government is not pleased. Their response is swift, and it is increasingly punitive, increasingly brutal. First, they just send troops. After there's an outbreak in Nottingham, the first Luddite uprising, they just send troops to occupy any of the villages or towns where these disturbances are going on. And the funny thing is, is that it doesn't matter. The Luddites continue their campaigns, and they slip right past these troops. Nobody is informing on the Luddites. The state puts huge rewards out there if anyone will come forward and inform on them, and nobody does. And when that doesn't work, they take the final step, and that is making it a crime punishable by death to break a machine. So it gets to the point where breaking a loom could have you put to death. So things are really escalating between the Luddites and the government.
SPEAKER_04: When does it all come to a head? So the Luddites had been rising up for months, and they had become very good at striking small to medium-sized operations and factories.
SPEAKER_03: There was a period where there were machine raids almost every day, and hundreds and then thousands of machines were smashed, just huge sums in that day of damage being done to the industrial state. But they felt, and specifically George Mellor, felt that it was time to strike a bigger blow.
SPEAKER_03: So this is probably the most famous battle in Luddite lore, but he gathers scores of men, there's over a hundred, and they attack what is then one of the biggest factories in the West Riding. A stone giant monolithic building, and kind of unbeknownst to them, it has been built up like a fortress inside. It turns into this huge melee where the Luddites are taking turns smashing this hammer and trying to shoot through the windows to try to gain entry so they can break the machines. But there are soldiers and mercenaries inside all shooting back at them. In the end, it's believed four, but two for sure Luddites are shot and killed, and they have to retreat. The attack at Raffalds Mill was really the Luddites' first major defeat, and it was a huge turning point.
SPEAKER_03: It showed the factory owners that the Luddites could be turned back by force, that they could be crushed in this way, and that maybe the answer wasn't bounties or trying to ratchet up the penal code, but to simply encourage factory owners to defend their businesses with guns if necessary.
SPEAKER_04: So could you tell us how the Luddite movement eventually ended? Like, what led to their defeat? So after the defeat at Raffalds, George Mellor kind of goes off the deep end. One of his close friends, who he had personally convinced to become a Luddite, John Booth, was among the dead,
SPEAKER_03: and he becomes pretty deeply unwell, and he quickly resolves. He needs to take more direct action. So he enlists a few of his colleagues, and they set out to attack the other major factory owner in town, a man named Horsfall, and they ambush him on his ride home and assassinate him in cold blood. So it becomes clear, both by the body count and sort of by the way the winds are blowing, that the Luddites are losing. And after George and the other croppers assassinate Horsfall, they also begin to lose public sentiment. So all of this leads this most sort of explosive outburst of Luddism to peter out. Really, the core Luddite uprising that we think about when we think about Luddites happened from 1811 to 1813, and it dies out by the end of the decade. And ultimately, George Miller, the Luddite leader, and his friends were put to death for their role in the assassination, right?
SPEAKER_03: Yeah, yeah. It was a big dramatic trial. The courtroom was packed. It was written about in the papers. And, you know, they never admitted to the assassination, but they were convicted pretty quickly, and they were hung outside York Castle. And then just days later, there was a trial for all of those who had been participating in the movement otherwise, just for machine breaking, not for assassinating Horsfall. And they were all put to death as well. It was a public affair. It was meant to send a signal to workers everywhere, because again, Luddites had become quite popular. Their movement was joined not just by cloth workers, but by shoemakers, by coal workers, by people of every stripe. Working people understood the structures that were taking shape, and that this mode of factory work, especially, and having to tend to the machines owned by somebody else was so onerous that it was worth fighting to preserve their way of life, to preserve their freedom, basically. So how did the defeat of the Luddites represent like a new template for labor relations and also just, you know, the way we make and build things going forward?
SPEAKER_03: The defeat of the Luddites meant that the factory owners won, and that this mode of production gets replicated everywhere. We get the Industrial Revolution, and it's largely a factory revolution. So when the Luddites lost, on the one hand, this particular mode of work became ascendant. And on the other hand, it became taboo to question how technology was used and how it was used in your workplace, how it was used against you, if it was going to be used against you. Technology became synonymous with progress, and to say otherwise could get you labeled backwards thinking or just sort of ignorant. And this was also very intentional. And we see that when the prosecutor is prosecuting George Miller and the Luddites. He's using these terms. He's decrying that men like George Miller have led other men under this delusion that machinery is not progress. So we see this equation early on begin to be formulated by those who it stands to benefit.
SPEAKER_04: Coming up after the break, we'll talk more with Brian Merchant about the ways that the Luddite movement still echoes today and whether we might see another Luddite uprising.
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SPEAKER_03: Yeah, it really is. There's a scholar, Theodore Roszak, who once said about the Luddites, and I love this, he said, if the Luddites didn't exist, then the tech industry would have to invent them. I think it's been very intentional on some level by, you know, the people who stand to benefit most from a lot of these technologies that we would do very well to question to have us not question them. It serves that bottom line, you know, if we're not asking questions about how Amazon gets us our products so cheaply and so quickly, and that to say, you know, maybe it's not worth the cost if we understand what's going on behind the scenes. If that is backwards looking, then Amazon wins. If we say maybe there should be safeguards or rules about how AI is used or situations where it should not be used at all in the workplace, if saying things like that makes us look sort of foolish, that serves companies like OpenAI that stand to make enormous profits from selling these tools to other enterprises. So it does make a certain level of sense that the Luddite term has been captured so thoroughly by, I guess you could say its opponents.
SPEAKER_04: Do you think we might see a new kind of Luddite uprising in reaction to developments and automation today?
SPEAKER_03: I do think we'll see some new threads of Luddism being woven, so to speak. I think we already are. So again, the Luddites did not have the tools that we have available to us, like we do have the ability to organize our workplaces and to sort of confront AI or automation if it's being used in ways that can cause us harms. And we are finally seeing that. And I think that is Luddism. And that is something that we haven't seen for decades now, and I'm talking about the actors and the screenwriters strike, which is predicated in large part over grievances about AI and sort of the gigafication of their work. It's very much explicit, both the screenwriters and the writers are drawing a red line in the way that we might imagine the Luddites drawing that line and saying, no, you cannot use chat GPT or an AI service to create an original script because we know that what you want to do is have the AI turn out an original script and then to pay us less money to edit it. And that's exactly what was happening 200 years ago. You know, they couldn't get rid of the person altogether, but they could make sort of a shoddy substitute. And it's that saying no, that just resonates so deeply with what Luddism is all about.
SPEAKER_03: A lot of what the Luddites were fighting against is so timeless because the way that we develop technology and the way it's imposed on our economy is so much the same to the extent that if you look back 200 years and you look at some of the solutions Luddites were proposing, they were proposing things that today look an awful lot like a robot tax that would be proposed by someone like Andrew Yang or Michael Bloomberg, where if you're using automated machinery, then some portion of that cloth that you would not otherwise be able to produce, you should tax that and then use that to fund worker programs. This is something that they suggested 200 years ago, and they saw the way that tech titans and entrepreneurs were using the idea of technology to get around regulations much the same way that 200 years later, Uber and Lyft and the gig economy companies would be using to say, oh, we're a technology company. We don't have to play by the municipal taxi code rules or anything like that. So this playbook has remained the same for so long, and it's going to be the same unless we really sort of take major strides to address it. Would you like to see people like use the word Luddite today in the proper way? Like, is this like a mission? It is a mission. I have become very pro-Luddite. I will fight this battle any day of the week.
SPEAKER_03: I think the time is ripe to reclaim the term, and I think we all benefit greatly if we succeed.
SPEAKER_04: 99% Invisible was produced this week by Delaney Hall, sound mix by Dara Hirsch, original music by Swan Riau, Kathy Tu is our executive producer, Kurt Kohlstedt is the digital director. The rest of the team includes Martine Gonzalez, Chris Berube, Jason De Leon, Emmett Fitzgerald, Christopher Johnson, Vivian Le, Lasha Madon, Jacob Maldonado Medina, Kelly Prime, Joe Rosenberg, and me, Roman Mars. Brian Merchant's book will be available for purchase on September 26th. It's called Blood in the Machine, the origins of the rebellion against big tech. There is so much detail we couldn't get into, bloody detail, incredible characters, so much going on. If you want to learn more about the Luddites, you definitely have to check it out. The 99% Invisible logo was created by Stefan Lawrence. We are part of the Stitcher and Sirius XM podcast family, now headquartered six blocks north in the Pandora building in beautiful, uptown Oakland, California. You can find the show and join discussions about the show on Facebook. You can tweet at me at Roman Mars and the show at 99pi.org or on Instagram, Reddit, and TikTok too. You can find links to other Stitcher shows I love, as well as every past episode of 99pi at 99pi.org. Great sleep can be hard to come by these days, and finding the right mattress feels totally overwhelming. Serta's new and improved Perfect Sleeper is a simple solution designed to support all sleep positions. With zoned comfort, memory foam, and a cool-to-the-touch cover, the Serta Perfect Sleeper means more restful nights and more rested days. Find your comfort at Serta.com.
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