Hardcore History

This episode is part two of a two-part series on the spread of Christianity to Northern Europe and the last holdouts who still believed in the ancient Norse gods. It continues the story from part one, further exploring the clash between the pagan Norse belief system and encroaching Christianity. The episode opens by recounting some key events in the late 900s CE that impacted Scandinavia and Norse settlers abroad. This includes the rise of King Harold Bluetooth in Denmark, who helped spread Christianity, as well as Norwegian ruler Hakon the Good. Meanwhile, England had descended into paying large sums to Viking raiders to avoid attacks. A major focus is the dramatic career of Norwegian King Olaf Tryggvason, who ruthlessly imposed Christianity and destroyed pagan idols. He had epic clashes with rivals like Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark before his death in 1000 CE at the Battle of Svolder. This paved the way for Sweyn's conquest of England in 1013, though his rule was short. His son Canute would cement a North Sea empire including England and parts of Scandinavia. The episode explores the gradual erosion of Norse paganism, even as some rulers converted for political reasons. Common people still believed in a pantheon of gods and spirits. The show posits that the Viking Age may have ended with Canute's reign or the 1066 Norman conquest of England by Canute's descendants. But elements of the old Norse gods and their worshippers lived on for centuries in remote areas of Scandinavia.

The podcast discusses the history of the Vikings during the 9th and 10th centuries, focusing on their raids and expansion into areas like England, France, and Eastern Europe. - It provides background on Viking society, culture, and religion, describing their warrior ethos and worship of Norse gods like Odin. Their raids are framed as driven by a mix of entrepreneurship, seeking valuables and slaves, and existential threat from expanding Christian kingdoms. - The "Great Heathen Army" of Vikings invaded England in the 860s-870s, conquering parts of Northumbria, East Anglia, and threatening Wessex. King Alfred the Great ultimately defeated them and they settled in northeast England. - In the 880s, Vikings besieged Paris and raided deep into France and Germany, despite payoffs of silver by rulers like Charles the Fat. This showed the limits of buying Viking peace. - Vikings also expanded east into Russia and clashed with the Byzantine Empire. Their mobility, ferocity, and surprise attacks made them difficult opponents for fragmented European powers. - By 900, Viking raiders were forming larger political entities and their traditional religion and way of life was under pressure from Christianity's spread. But they remained a formidable threat in the 900s.

- The Atlantic slave trade involved the large-scale transportation of enslaved Africans to the Americas by Europeans from the 16th to 19th centuries. Millions were taken from Africa and endured horrific conditions during transport. - Slavery already existed in Africa, Europe, and the Americas before this trade began. However, the scale and brutality of the Atlantic slave trade was unprecedented. - The Portuguese initiated direct trade between Europe and sub-Saharan Africa in the 15th century. This provided a pipeline for slaves to the Americas as demand grew. - The Spanish, French, British, and Dutch eventually dominated the Atlantic slave trade. It became a major commercial enterprise and critical to colonial economies in the Americas. - Advances in shipbuilding, navigation, and finance enabled the expansion of the slave trade. Europe's capitalist economy profited enormously from commodities produced by slave labor like sugar, tobacco, and cotton. - Conditions on slave ships were nightmarish with extreme overcrowding, disease, lack of food/water, and physical/sexual abuse. Many Africans died during the infamous "Middle Passage" across the Atlantic. - Slavery became entrenched in the Americas and laws were developed to control slaves. Violence and terror were used to compel labor and prevent revolts. - By the late 18th century, opposition to slavery grew. Slave revolts, especially the Haitian Revolution, increased pressure for abolition. Changing sensibilities and economics also played a role. - Britain and the United States banned the Atlantic slave trade in 1807. However, slavery persisted in the Americas into the late 19th century before being fully abolished. Its legacy continued through legalized discrimination.

Episode Title: Show 67 - Supernova in the East VI - By late 1944, the war was clearly winding down in Europe but ramping up in intensity and casualties in the Pacific theater. The Japanese were becoming more fanatical in their resistance as the Allies closed in. - Civilian casualties were skyrocketing, with hundreds of thousands dying each month in Asia due to Japanese atrocities. The Japanese were also suffering massive military casualties but refused to surrender. - The Allies debated invasion versus blockade/bombing as strategies to defeat Japan. Casualty estimates for an invasion were extremely high. The bombing campaign was steadily destroying Japanese cities and industry. - Major battles like Iwo Jima and Okinawa gave a preview of how costly and difficult an invasion of Japan would be. Casualties were very high and Japanese resistance was fierce, with many fighting to the death or committing suicide. - In July 1945, the Trinity nuclear test was successful. This introduced a new weapon into the debates over Japan. Some saw it as a way to shock Japan into surrender and avoid an invasion. - Hiroshima and Nagasaki were bombed in August 1945. The atomic bombs killed over 100,000 people but did not immediately lead to Japan's surrender. - After the Soviet Union declared war and a second atomic bombing, the emperor finally pushed for Japan's surrender in August 1945. The war ended but showed how far the Japanese militarists were willing to go.

Episode Title: Show 66 - Supernova in the East V - In mid-1942, the Japanese begin advancing over the mountains in New Guinea towards Port Moresby. They commit many atrocities along the way, including beheadings and killing civilians. - The Japanese advance is halted by Australian troops, many of them reservists, along the Kokoda Trail in the Owen Stanley Mountains. The terrain is incredibly difficult, with mountains, heavy rain, and dense jungle. Disease kills more troops than combat. - In August 1942, U.S. Marines land on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. This begins a long and difficult campaign to take the island from the Japanese. Disease, starvation, and suicide take a heavy toll on Japanese troops. - In June 1944, the U.S. begins the invasion of the Mariana Islands, including Saipan. The Japanese commit thousands of troops to defend the islands, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides. - The invasion of Saipan sees many Japanese civilians commit suicide by jumping off cliffs after propaganda convinces them the Americans will torture and kill them. In total, 20-25,000 Japanese civilians die on Saipan. - After Saipan falls, Japan is within range of American B-29 bombers. Japanese leaders know the war is lost but prepare for a fight to the death to defend the homeland. Civilians train to resist with bamboo spears.

- The episode covers the early stages of the Pacific War, including the invasion of Guadalcanal and fighting in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. - The US Marines and Australian troops face fierce resistance from Japanese forces, who fight to the death rather than surrender. The Japanese commit many atrocities which harden Allied attitudes. - There are issues with inter-service rivalry on the Allied side, especially between the US Army and Navy over command. General MacArthur and Admiral King clash over strategy. - The episode examines major naval battles like Midway, Coral Sea and the Battle of Savo Island. New technologies like aircraft carriers revolutionize naval warfare. - The Japanese suffer major defeats that halt their advance, like at Midway where they lose four carriers. But they remain determined to make the Allies pay a high price. - The episode looks at the human side of war, from the perspectives of soldiers and sailors on both sides. It describes the shocking and chaotic nature of the fighting. - Overall, the episode covers the key events, themes and human experiences as the war in the Pacific transitions from Japanese advances to the start of Allied counter-offensives.

This episode continues the story of World War II in the Pacific theater. It begins by comparing the Japanese's early military successes to a pro wrestler gaining the upper hand at the start of a match. However, the Allies will soon begin to turn the tide. The episode then recaps the fall of the Philippines and the horrific Bataan Death March, where thousands of Allied prisoners of war were mistreated and killed by their Japanese captors. This left a deep hatred amongst Allied troops that would contribute to the brutality of fighting in the Pacific. Next, the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 is discussed. This was the first naval battle fought entirely with aircraft carriers and marked a major setback for the Japanese. They were prevented from invading Port Moresby in New Guinea and lost the aircraft carrier Shōhō. The episode then covers the pivotal Battle of Midway in June 1942. Through brilliant codebreaking, the US learned of Japan's plan to attack Midway and set a trap with its outnumbered carrier fleet. In the ensuing battle, four Japanese carriers were sunk in exchange for one American carrier, devastating Japan's naval air power. It is considered one of the most important battles in naval history. The Japanese advance across the Pacific was finally halted. The Allies could now start to push back, beginning with the Guadalcanal campaign. This marked a major turning point in the war, with Japan losing its strategic initiative. The episode ends by noting that while Japan started the war like a pro wrestler dominating his opponent, the Allies were now standing up and ready to issue payback.

- The episode focuses on the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which brought the United States into World War II. - There is background provided on rising tensions between Japan and the U.S. in the 1930s and 1940s, including economic sanctions imposed on Japan by the U.S. - Admiral Yamamoto devised an audacious plan to attack the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor using aircraft carriers and planes. This was seen as a risky gamble. - The attack achieved complete surprise and devastated the fleet, sinking 4 battleships, damaging others, and destroying over 200 aircraft. Over 2,400 Americans were killed. - The attack enraged the American public and led to the U.S. entering World War II fully committed to defeating Japan. - Yamamoto hoped the attack would give Japan supremacy in the Pacific to secure resources needed for its war in China. But he feared it would awaken a "sleeping giant." - The episode examines the attack in detail, including accounts from survivors and the Japanese planning. The skill and daring of the attack is noted. - But Yamamoto's fears proved warranted, as the enraged U.S. would go on to overwhelm Japan after recovering from the blow at Pearl Harbor.

- The episode focuses on the lead up to World War 2 in the Pacific theater, particularly looking at Japan's rise as an imperial power. - It provides background on Japanese history and culture, including the Tokugawa shogunate period, the Meiji Restoration, and the influence of Bushido warrior ethics. - Japan goes from an isolated, feudal society to rapidly modernizing and building up its military in the late 19th century. This sets the stage for Japan's wars with China and Russia. - After annexing Korea and Taiwan, Japan looks to expand further into Manchuria in mainland China in the 1930s. This leads to the Mukden Incident in 1931, which sparks the undeclared war between Japan and China. - Meanwhile, political assassinations and attempted coups by right-wing nationalist groups create instability in Japan. The military increasingly asserts control over the weak civilian government. - In 1937, full scale war erupts between Japan and China after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident near Beijing. The fighting spreads to Shanghai, resulting in high casualties on both sides over a three month battle. - The episode ends with the Japanese capture of Nanjing, setting the stage for the infamous Nanjing Massacre that will be covered in the next part. In summary, the episode provides important historical context about Japan's cultural and political development that led to its imperial expansionism and eventual war with China in the lead up to World War 2.

- The podcast discusses the history of public executions and torture, focusing on Europe from the 16th to 19th centuries. It examines the spectacle and entertainment value of public executions for the crowds that gathered to watch. - In early modern Europe, public executions often involved elaborate rituals and were seen as religious experiences where both the condemned and the crowd played symbolic roles. The goal was to save the soul of the condemned through their repentance. - Over time, authorities secularized executions as demonstrations of state power rather than religious rituals. This helped transform them into more of a spectacle for the curiosity and entertainment of the crowds. - The podcast discusses how the rise of Enlightenment ideals led some intellectuals to view the cruelty of public executions as barbaric. There was also fear that the unruly crowds posed a threat. This led to reforms ending public executions in favor of private ones. - However, the podcast argues that public executions likely remained popular with the public even as authorities tried to abolish them. It suggests people today might still be drawn to such spectacles if given the opportunity. - Overall, the podcast examines the complex motivations behind public executions through history, from ritual to spectacle, and questions whether changes in attitudes reflect an evolution in human sensibilities or simply changes in what the public is allowed to see.

- The podcast discusses the conquest of Gaul (modern-day France) by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BCE and the resistance of the Celtic tribes. - Caesar portrayed the campaign as necessary to counter a threat from Germanic tribes migrating into Gaul. However, he likely had political and economic motivations as well. - The Celtic tribes put up fierce resistance under leaders like Vercingetorix, but were ultimately defeated due to Roman military superiority. The conquest led to the death or enslavement of a large portion of the Gallic population. - The resistance showed the willingness of the Gauls to sacrifice everything for liberty, but also led to immense suffering. It's debated whether the resistance was ultimately worth the cost. - Celtic culture and languages persisted for centuries after the conquest, showing the resilience of Celtic identity. The memory of Celtic resistance remained powerful, as evidenced by the Irish girl in the story proud that the Irish still speak their Celtic language, not Latin.

Introduction - The podcast explores how humankind has struggled to adapt to the immense destructive power of nuclear weapons since their invention during World War II. Part 1 - The Dawn of the Nuclear Age - The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 ushered in the nuclear age and gave leaders like Truman unprecedented destructive power. - Scientists like Oppenheimer debated whether humanity could ethically handle this new technology. Some called for eliminating nuclear weapons while others pushed for developing new superweapons like the hydrogen bomb. - Geopolitical tensions led to crises like the Berlin blockade, spurring further nuclear buildup despite scientists' warnings. Game theory emerged as an intellectual attempt to manage nuclear brinkmanship. Part 2 - The H-Bomb and the Arms Race - The Soviet A-bomb test in 1949 ended the US monopoly and began the arms race. The US tested the first H-bomb in 1952, thousands of times more powerful than early atomic bombs. - The nuclear arms race accelerated through the 1950s as both sides built stockpiles, developed ICBMs, and spread weapons to allies. This made war planning incredibly complex. - Human errors and technical glitches led to many nuclear accidents and near-misses, revealing the dangers of leaving weapons control in human hands alone. Part 3 - The Cuban Missile Crisis - In 1962 the world came closest to nuclear war over Soviet missiles in Cuba. Kennedy resisted military advisors pushing for war. - Khrushchev and Kennedy leveraged diplomacy and offered concessions to walk back from the brink at the last minute, but future miscalculations could still lead to disaster. - The crisis scared leaders into pursuing arms control and crisis communication methods (like a hotline), but the risk of human-triggered catastrophe remained. Conclusion - 70+ years after Hiroshima, the "long peace" between nuclear powers continues untested. But with thousands of weapons still deployed, crisis flashpoints everywhere, and fallible humans in control, it remains uncertain whether humanity can adapt long-term to live with nuclear technology. Accident or miscalculation could still unleash catastrophe.