The Wubi Effect

SPEAKER_02: Radiolab is supported by Apple Card. Apple Card has a cash-back rewards program unlike other credit cards. You earn unlimited daily cash on every purchase, receive it daily, and can grow it at 4.15% annual percentage yield when you open a savings account. Apply for Apple Card in the Wallet app on iPhone. Apple Card subject to credit approval. Savings is available to Apple Card owners subject to eligibility requirements. Savings accounts provided by Goldman Sachs Bank USA. Member FDIC terms apply. SPEAKER_19: Crack cocaine plagued the United States for more than a decade. This week on Notes from America author Donovan Ramsey explains how the myths of crack prolonged a disastrous era and shaped millions of lives. Listen now wherever you get your podcasts. SPEAKER_02: This is Radiolab. I'm Lulu Miller. Last week, you may have noticed that our reporter, Simon Adler, stepped up to co-host the episode, the great episode about the pesky little law that undergirds the internet. That one's called The Internet Dilemma. And last month, Simon stepped up to host a Radiolab live event here in New York City that totally kicked behind. It was eerie and musical and strange and changed the way that people look up at the moon. It's called Mixtape's to the Moon. And actually, he's going on tour with it. He's going to Chicago and Boston with dates coming to LA and Seattle. If you want to know more about where you can see Simon's live show, we've put all the details in the liner notes of this episode. Just go check his little links. Get ready. It's the season of Simon. It really is. And so we thought we'd play one of his all-time bangers called The Woobie Effect. It's an episode that's about one of my favorite things, naming the world around us and how we decide to put words on things can change realities and culture and history. I love this episode. It's like a word puzzle with global stakes. So I'm going to kick it over to Simon and co-reporter Yang Yang. They tell their story to a guy you may have heard of. OG Radiolab host, Jad Abumrad. Here we go. SPEAKER_06: You're listening to Radiolab. From WNYC. Rewind. SPEAKER_02: Hey, I'm Jad Abumrad. This is Radiolab. To start things off today, a couple months ago. SPEAKER_06: You want some coffee? Too small? In that magical, forgotten time before the coronavirus, our reporter Simon Adler somewhat mysteriously walked me a few blocks from our office, mic in hand, to a coffee shop. OK, with our coffee purchased, let's go stand SPEAKER_04: in the corner where it's maybe a little less loud. SPEAKER_06: Sort of a fancy one. Exposed brick, bare Edison bulbs. SPEAKER_04: So let's gaze out upon the hipsters of lower Manhattan. SPEAKER_06: Count the number of laptops. Yeah. So how many laptops do you think are in here? OK, starting from the left, we're going to circle around. We got one, two, three, four, five, six. Two more on the bottom. Two more on the bottom. SPEAKER_04: And they're all typing the same way, right? They're all using a QWERTY keyboard? SPEAKER_06: Yeah, yes. And the reason he dragged me there, as I now know. Now let's imagine we're in Shenzhen in a Chinese SPEAKER_04: Starbucks. Was to point out a massive cultural difference SPEAKER_06: hidden in plain sight and to propose a bit of a reporting trip. Are you going to send somebody to Starbucks in Shenzhen? Well, that's my hope that I will be the one sent to Starbucks in Shenzhen. SPEAKER_03: Well played, Adler. Now, you did not bite on that reporting trip. SPEAKER_04: Nope. Plus, pretty soon thereafter, traveling to China became a lot more difficult. So… OK, I'm in this big Starbucks shop here SPEAKER_07: in Hong Kong. To play out this comparison I had in mind, SPEAKER_04: instead, we hired and sent local reporter Yang Yang to scope it out for us. SPEAKER_07: There are about 50 people here. Maybe 30 laptops or tablets open. Because, and here is where we get to the point, everyone in this Starbucks SPEAKER_04: You know, typing and writing and browsing on the internet. SPEAKER_04: were all using their keyboards in a different way. SPEAKER_06: What do you mean? So using it in different ways in the way that they use the keyboard or that the keyboard that they're using themselves are different? SPEAKER_04: The physical keyboard is going to be the exact same thing. They're QWERTY keyboards, just like here in New York. Oh, OK. I didn't know that. But even if everybody in this Chinese Starbucks was really into dogs, it was a dog convention, and so they were all typing the word go, which is dog in Mandarin. No two people would be typing the word dog the same way. SPEAKER_03: That's right. There could be 50 different ways that that keyboard is being used to type the Chinese language. This is Professor Tom Mullaney. I'm professor of Chinese history at Stanford University. OK, and this is the doorway into the grand mystery, it would seem. SPEAKER_04: Yeah, because, I mean, in theory, there are an infinite number of different ways to type SPEAKER_03: Chinese with the QWERTY keyboard. SPEAKER_06: I don't even know what that means. How is that possible? SPEAKER_04: Well, it turns out that figuring out how to type in Chinese on a keyboard was one of the SPEAKER_03: most complex engineering, linguistic and conceptual puzzles of its time. It's a puzzle that threatened to erase an entire culture, nearly prevented China from SPEAKER_04: becoming the technological superpower that it is today, and says a whole lot about where all of our communication is heading. SPEAKER_20: All right, so before we get into why typing in Chinese is such a crazy, difficult problem SPEAKER_04: to solve, let me introduce you to one of the guys who actually set out to solve it. SPEAKER_13: Hello! Hello, Simon! Hi! SPEAKER_04: Hello, is everybody here? Can you all hear us? Professor Wang Yongmin. Yes, Professor Wang is here. You can talk to him. SPEAKER_04: My interpreter, fixer and really co-reporter on the China side of this, Yang Yang, and I spoke with him a couple months back. Professor Wang, I think of you as sort of almost like the Chinese Steve Jobs. Is that a fair way to think of you? SPEAKER_13: He says that he's nowhere close to the wealth Steve Jobs held. SPEAKER_07: But in terms of his fame and reputation, yes, it's a fair comparison. SPEAKER_04: Professor Wang was born in the 1940s in a small rural village. SPEAKER_13: Growing up in this village, they had wheat and corn. SPEAKER_04: His family farmed and his dad was also a carpenter, but it was a hardscrabble existence. SPEAKER_07: His family was so poor that they couldn't afford any clothes for him. SPEAKER_07: And because they were dirt poor, he understood at a very young age that going to school was not a small thing. SPEAKER_07: So he studied extremely hard. SPEAKER_13: He said that from the first grade all the way to university, I am always the number SPEAKER_07: one. SPEAKER_04: And all that hard work paid off. He was selected to attend the University of Science and Technology of China, which is basically the equivalent to MIT. SPEAKER_07: And after graduating from college, he was assigned by the government to a research institute located in this remote district. SPEAKER_04: And this wasn't just any research institute. SPEAKER_13: It was a top secret, highly classified national defense research institute. SPEAKER_07: Even the locals didn't know what these people were doing there. SPEAKER_04: And the top secret, highly classified work that was going on there was building computers, which in China wasn't just an engineering question. It was much deeper. Keep in mind, this was the early 1970s. SPEAKER_03: And everyone that was paying attention knew that computing was going to change the fabric of economy, warfare. SPEAKER_04: Again, historian Tom Mullaney. Communication, everything. SPEAKER_07: At that time, China was just starting to enter this field and was lagging behind. I mean, the best estimates I could find say that around that time in the entire country, SPEAKER_04: with a population of nearly a billion people, there were only 3,000 computers in use. SPEAKER_03: Why is that? Well, the simple reason is the Chinese language could not fit inside a computer. Meaning what? SPEAKER_04: So, in English, we put our words onto the page or the screen by shuffling around these 26 letters, right? SPEAKER_20: Say them with me. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, B, I, G, Big. SPEAKER_04: Each one representing a sound in the word. And the writing, in fact, tells you how to say the word. B, I, G, Big. SPEAKER_04: Well, Chinese writing is completely different. SPEAKER_21: The person character is placed next to a tree to convey the idea of resting. SPEAKER_04: When you write in Chinese, you aren't writing down the sounds of the word so much as you're drawing a picture of each word. SPEAKER_21: Three trees here are combined in the character for … C, to mean a forest. SPEAKER_04: This Chinese writing goes back at least 3,000 years. And in fact, some of the earliest known examples of it were found on artifacts in Professor Wang's home province. SPEAKER_04: And this writing system, these characters, grew out of an attempt to represent the actual things in the world around us. Water, stars, animals, actions, feelings. SPEAKER_07: You can see a thing, see a picture, a long history in a Chinese character. SPEAKER_04: So that today, there are more than 70,000 of these Chinese characters. Each a unique visual representation of a word or an idea. And so the problem was, in the 1970s, computers had only a few bytes of memory. Not even enough to store a single email message. SPEAKER_03: And so the available memory on most of these, on all of these computers, commercially available computers, couldn't even store the Chinese character set. SPEAKER_04: Or display them on a screen or even print them. Like again, back in the day, the 1970s, the way we're printing things is with dot matrix printers, right? SPEAKER_06: Oh, I remember. SPEAKER_03: Yeah. Okay. Where these tiny needles strike the paper, composing letters out of a set of little dots. Paper pixels. Paper pixels, exactly. It takes way more pixels to produce a Chinese character than it does to produce a letter of the Latin alphabet. SPEAKER_04: And so inside these printers, those little needles weren't packed densely enough to tattoo a legible character onto the page. SPEAKER_03: And if you take those pins and shrink them to get more paper pixels in a pinhead, well, what happens is they bend and break. Because they are not tuned metallurgically, they're not tuned to being that size. So it's not as if China could simply just buy these computers wholesale because the English language, the Latin alphabet, was in effect being baked into the architecture, in some cases, the very matter and materiality of these machines. SPEAKER_06: Whoa. That's funny. Like, you know, we talk sometimes about algorithm bias, but I had never realized there was this huge cultural barrier in the basic hardware of the computer. SPEAKER_04: Totally. And I mean, for China, this was seen as an existential threat. Like, consider the fact that because of these limitations into the 80s, they were forced to conduct and tabulate their senses with pencil and paper. SPEAKER_16: No s***. SPEAKER_03: And so, by Lord, if China couldn't figure out a way to computerize Chinese or to Chinese-ize computers, then it was going to be on the outside looking in. So this was the problem they were trying to solve at that top secret research institute. SPEAKER_04: And the full magnitude of it, of this problem, really smacked Professor Wang in the face when he saw his first fully formed Western computer, which amazingly, because he'd been focused on such hyper-specific electrical problems, didn't happen until about eight years into his research. SPEAKER_04: He remembers seeing it in a local printing shop. SPEAKER_07: The first ever in real life. SPEAKER_07: He was totally amazed. Yeah, I mean, that was incredible. SPEAKER_04: But then he says he looked down at the keyboard attached to the computer and saw the Latin letters and he thought, wait, how am I supposed to type 70,000 characters with just those 70 keys? Like how are we going to fit the Chinese language on this thing? SPEAKER_03: That would be the equivalent of trying to get all 26 letters of the Latin alphabet onto less than one key. SPEAKER_04: And as Professor Wang began looking into this, he found that the consensus at the time was it simply couldn't be done. SPEAKER_07: At that time, there was a saying that computers are the gravediggers of Chinese characters. SPEAKER_06: Gravediggers. SPEAKER_03: Oh, totally. People were making very loud calls for the absolute abolition of character-based writing. SPEAKER_06: You mean like throw out Chinese characters altogether? Yeah. SPEAKER_07: It was like a doom day. SPEAKER_06: Because of this very thing. SPEAKER_04: It was a big part of it. And so tons of folks in the field of computing were arguing. SPEAKER_03: We've got to replace Chinese with Esperanto or with English or with something else so that we can participate in global modernity. SPEAKER_14: Behind the plans is the realization that China must modernize or starve. SPEAKER_04: There was even a government body, the State Commission on Language Reform, that was looking into how to do this. However, Wang wasn't convinced. SPEAKER_04: He thought there has to be a way to type in Chinese and save the Chinese character. SPEAKER_07: He called it destiny. He felt like it was fate. SPEAKER_04: And he was convinced that if he couldn't do it, if he couldn't find a way to save the character. SPEAKER_07: Chinese culture would be over with it too. SPEAKER_07: So I didn't know if I would succeed. I didn't know if I would fail. There was no return, regardless of life and death. SPEAKER_04: Whoa. So dramatic. It's so dramatic. But it was really pressing for him. SPEAKER_07: Yeah. SPEAKER_04: And for good reason. Because in fact, Chinese writing had nearly been wiped out once before. And we're going to get into that right after this break. Lulu here. SPEAKER_02: If you ever heard the classic Radiolab episode, Sometimes Behave So Strangely, you know that speech can suddenly leap into music and really how strange and magic sound itself can be. We at Radiolab take sound seriously and use it to make our journalism as impactful as it can be, and we need your help to keep doing it. The best way to support us is to join our membership program, The Lab. This month, all new members will get a T-shirt that says Sometimes Behave So Strangely. To check out the T-shirt and support the show, go to radiolab.org slash join. Radiolab is supported by Capital One with no fees or minimums. Banking with Capital One is the easiest decision in the history of decisions, even easier than deciding to listen to another episode of your favorite podcast. And with no overdraft fees, is it even a decision? That's banking reimagined. What's in your wallet? Terms apply. See Capital One dot com slash bank Capital One N-A member FDIC. Radiolab is supported by Apple Card. Apple Card has a cash back rewards program unlike other credit cards. You earn unlimited daily cash on every purchase, receive it daily and can grow it at 4.15 annual percentage yield when you open a savings account. Apply for Apple Card in the wallet app on iPhone. Apple Card subject to credit approval. Savings is available to Apple Card owners subject to eligibility requirements. Savings accounts provided by Goldman Sachs Bank USA. Member FDIC terms apply. SPEAKER_17: After but her emails became shorthand in 2016 for the media's deep focus on Hillary Clinton's server hygiene at the expense of policy issues, is history repeating itself? SPEAKER_16: You can almost see an equation again, I would say led by the times in Biden being old with Donald Trump being under dozens of felony indictments. SPEAKER_17: Listen to On the Media from WNYC. Find On the Media wherever you get your podcasts. SPEAKER_06: Okay, three, two, one. Hey, I'm Chad Abumrad. And I'm Simon Adler. This is Radiolab. And today, China's technological twist of fate. SPEAKER_04: Yeah, so when we think about China today, we think of a technological superpower. But that wasn't always the case. And in fact, it nearly wasn't the case at all. Because of a very mundane yet profound puzzle. That being, like, how do you fit the massive Chinese character set onto a QWERTY keyboard? SPEAKER_06: And before the break, Simon, you introduced us to a guy named Professor Wang, the man who was tasked with solving this problem, which it sounds like he took pretty seriously. SPEAKER_04: Yeah, and for good reason. Because the Chinese writing system had almost disappeared once before. To set the scene, it's the 19-teens. China is emerging as a nation out onto the world stage. And they're noticing technological advancements in the West. SPEAKER_05: A Chinese visitor to the US, let's say, he goes to the Ford Company corporate headquarters. And collector Martin Howard. Well, walking in through the front door and down the halls to the administrative area, what they're going to hear is a cacophony of sound. Okay. He's going to get louder and louder, and then he's going to turn the corner, and he's going to be faced with rows and rows of hundreds of typists typing away. And these typewriters in businesses across the United States were literally remaking SPEAKER_04: English communication. Simon, it was a revolutionary machine, a paradigm shift. SPEAKER_05: Typewriter speed queens are lined up to show the world how fast they are. SPEAKER_05: For three basic reasons. Number one. Then there are. SPEAKER_05: Speed. The tap-tappers setting the keyboards on fire. SPEAKER_05: One can type four times faster than a clerk could write with a pen. 149 words a minute. Number two. You know what it's like reading other people's handwriting? Some people's handwriting is goddamn awful. Legibility. Awful to read. SPEAKER_15: It's a tremendous step forward in business efficiency. SPEAKER_05: The third reason. Making copies. Think about that. If it's four times faster and you're producing 10 copies at the same time, one could argue that's 40 times faster. I think my math is right there. I think so. If it's 20 copies, then it's 80 times faster. That's mind-tingling, right? And so China's like, we have to have that speed, that efficiency. SPEAKER_03: We have to have these machines. SPEAKER_04: And so some 50 years prior to Professor Wang's problem, you had people saying. We've got to get rid of Chinese. I mean, Mao himself advocated for either throwing the Chinese character out completely or at a bare minimum adopting an alphabet so that they could spell out the way characters sound. SPEAKER_03: Yeah, he was one of the chorus. SPEAKER_06: And so the thought there was that if you alphabetize the Chinese characters, you could then lay it out on a keyboard and the problem goes away? Exactly. OK. SPEAKER_04: So obviously Chinese writing did not disappear and there was actually a Chinese character typewriter, several of them in fact. And what's striking about it, the model that won the day is just how un-typewritery it is. SPEAKER_03: This is a typewriter with no keyboard. It's this clunky yet eloquent device with just two levers, one for your left hand, one SPEAKER_04: for your right, and then this big tray bed full of metal characters. And using those levers, you move the tray bed vertically and horizontally to line up the character you want. SPEAKER_03: And then press down on the lever that your right hand is holding. And in one fell swoop, sort of bop, bop, bop, the metal character gets sucked into the type chamber. SPEAKER_04: The character swings further up towards the page on this metal arm. SPEAKER_06: Like a jukebox the way it reaches in and lifts up a record? SPEAKER_04: Exactly. On its way up. Rubs against an ink spool and then strikes the paper, printing the character onto the SPEAKER_03: page. Before, finally, the arm swings back down and the force of it doing so spits that metal SPEAKER_04: character back into the tray bed. Dang. And while you could only type about half as fast on one of these as you could on a QWERTY English typewriter, I mean, it worked. It was enough to stave off the death of the character. SPEAKER_04: And for Professor Wang, 50 years later, it was a sign. SPEAKER_13: A sign that instead of forcing the Chinese language to bend to the will of technology, SPEAKER_04: technology could be bent to the will of the Chinese language, the Chinese character. SPEAKER_13: And so to do that, he actually started by breaking down the Chinese characters themselves. SPEAKER_03: Because let's face it, even though Chinese doesn't have an alphabet, that doesn't mean that every character in Chinese is absolutely unique and singular in a snowflake. There are pieces and components and shapes that reappear over and over in these different characters. SPEAKER_13: Just imagine this is chemistry. SPEAKER_07: There were tens of thousands of molecules in chemistry. SPEAKER_07: But there are only 100 or so atoms. SPEAKER_04: Professor Wang believed that if he could just figure out what the atoms of Chinese characters were, the components of characters, like a shape alphabet, that he could put those on SPEAKER_04: the keyboard and that people could then, quote unquote, spell Chinese characters not by sound, SPEAKER_03: but by shape. Now to help visualize this, let's take the character for river, jiang, which looks like SPEAKER_04: a capital I with three dashes to its left, two near the top and one near the bottom. Got it. Now this character, jiang, contains two components. The first is that capital letter I and the second is those three dashes. Now on its own, that capital letter I is actually the character for work. And those three dashes actually represent water. So work plus water equals river. Correct. And just as with this character, jiang, these quote unquote work and water components often appear in combination with other components. So for example, those three dashes, the water component, are present in the characters for juice and sweat and soup. Anyhow, so what we just did, taking a character and breaking it into its parts, is what Professor SPEAKER_04: Wang began to do as he searched for the most common and fundamental of these components. He got himself a room, emptied it out of everything but a couple desks, and with a small staff he'd assembled, he took 10,000 characters and began breaking them apart and making note cards. SPEAKER_07: Yeah, note cards. SPEAKER_04: One note card for each component of each of the 10,000 characters he was dissecting. So like jiang, river would get two note cards, one with the I on it, one with the three dashes on it. SPEAKER_04: When this was all said and done, what he had laying out on these various desks … SPEAKER_13: … were 120,000 cards. SPEAKER_07: If you stack them all together, they were like 12 meters tall. SPEAKER_04: About the height of a three-story building. But of these 120,000 cards, many of them were duplicates or triplicates or quadruplicates. Like there would be at least four cards with the same water component on them, right? One from the character for river, another from soup, and two more from sweat and juice. SPEAKER_04: So from there what he did was sorted all of the common components together. All of the water components on that table, the wort components over there, leaving him now with just several thousand piles. Several thousand components. SPEAKER_04: Clearly still way too many to put onto a keyboard. So he did it again. Broke each of those components apart and made more note cards and regrouped and repiled the new common components. And he did this again. SPEAKER_07: Boiling down, lower, and again, and lower, and again, and again, lower, and lower. SPEAKER_04: Restacking pieces of paper. SPEAKER_07: Yeah, just passing cards. SPEAKER_04: Wow. Professor Wang did this for five years until he had it down to 125 components. SPEAKER_13: The periodic table of Chinese as he referred to it. SPEAKER_06: And then how would you type with this periodic table? Well, just like texting on a flip phone. SPEAKER_04: You remember texting on a flip phone where each number key represents three different letters? So that to type, say, the word dad, you'd just type 323. Well, just like that, Professor Wang placed five or so of these components on each key of the QWERTY keyboard so that by typing in the component pieces of a character, the computer would sum them up for you and generate it on the screen. He named his creation the WUBY method. SPEAKER_07: It described WUBY as a sacred invention. SPEAKER_04: All he had to do now was convince the rest of the world. He got that opportunity in 1984. Mr. Secretary General, thank you for granting me the honor of speaking on this first day SPEAKER_01: of the 38th session of the General Assembly. SPEAKER_07: He was invited to the United Nations to present his invention. SPEAKER_04: When he arrived, he sat down, set up his computer, you know, to demo it. And with a bunch of people watching him, he took a deep breath and started typing. And immediately, the deputy secretary, who was standing over his shoulder watching, was SPEAKER_07: astonished to see Chinese characters rapidly appearing on the screen. SPEAKER_04: In fact, she was incredulous. SPEAKER_07: You know, they thought one had played a trick on them. SPEAKER_04: They asked them to stand up and step away from the computer. And they flipped the keyboard, looking for some hidden piece of hardware. SPEAKER_07: And at that time, one replied, you know, what? It's just your keyboard. It's just your keyboard. It's the same keyboard. And after this, he and WUBY went viral. He became one of the top 10 biggest names in China. SPEAKER_04: He and WUBY were on the front page of newspapers. He was licensing WUBY all over the world. This sound is actually from an infomercial for WUBY, filled with flying photos of Professor Wang sitting next to important people. I mean, for China's version of July 4th. SPEAKER_07: On his national day, he was chosen as the head of ceremonies of Hunan province. SPEAKER_04: I'm imagining him as like the leader of the parade with his baton in hand marching down the street. SPEAKER_07: Totally, totally. And then that same year, his crowning achievement. SPEAKER_14: Dramatic political and economic changes are taking place in the world's most populous country. SPEAKER_13: April the 4th, 1984. SPEAKER_07: A new leader, Hu Yaobang. SPEAKER_07: Hu Yaobang, the head of the Communist Party, came to visit Professor Wang. SPEAKER_04: And sitting down with him, the most powerful man in China at the time. SPEAKER_07: After Wang explained his invention, Hu Yaobang stood up and asked, SPEAKER_07: From rate Yongming, do we still need to forsake Chinese characters? And Wang replied, No, no. SPEAKER_07: Chinese characters don't need to be replaced. They can be efficiently input, just like English. SPEAKER_04: Hu Yaobang went back to Beijing. And according to Professor Wang, not long after, SPEAKER_07: The state commission for language reform. SPEAKER_04: The government body looking into how to do away with the Chinese character. SPEAKER_07: Was closed, shut down. SPEAKER_04: In no small part. SPEAKER_07: Because of Wang's invention. Companies were using Wubi. Students were taught to use Wubi. Learning Wubi became synonymous with learning how to use the computer. SPEAKER_04: He had saved thousands of years of the Chinese language and given it a place in the modern world. And as far as Professor Wang was concerned, SPEAKER_03: To be this person was to be placed alongside, I don't know, Ford, Thomas Edison. Steve Jobs, perhaps? Steve Jobs, yeah, this sort of singular genius inventor. SPEAKER_13: So he sort of at this point has slayed the dragon. SPEAKER_04: He is the victor. SPEAKER_07: He was, or he thought he was. The battle hasn't finished. SPEAKER_04: In fact, it was only beginning. SPEAKER_06: When we come back for break, Chinese typing gets predictive and the keyboards start directing us. SPEAKER_02: Radio Lab is supported by Capital One. With no fees or minimums, banking with Capital One is the easiest decision in the history of decisions. Even easier than deciding to listen to another episode of your favorite podcast. And with no overdraft fees, is it even a decision? That's banking reimagined. What's in your wallet? Terms apply. See Capital One dot com slash bank Capital One N.A. member FDIC. Radio Lab is supported by Apple Card Apple Card has a cash back rewards program. Unlike other credit cards, you earn unlimited daily cash on every purchase, receive it daily and can grow it at four point one five annual percentage yield. When you open a savings account, apply for Apple Card in the wallet app on iPhone. Apple Card subject to credit approval. Savings is available to Apple Card owners subject to eligibility requirements. Savings accounts provided by Goldman Sachs Bank USA member FDIC. Terms apply. SPEAKER_06: Jad, Radio Lab, back to producer Simon Adler. So before the break, Professor Wong had seemingly solved this massive technological linguistic SPEAKER_04: challenge and saved the Chinese character. He'd found a way to type Chinese with a plain old QWERTY keyboard. SPEAKER_06: But thinking back to the beginning, when you took me to that cafe, Simon, and we heard about all the different ways people were using the keyboard in that Hong Kong Starbucks. How did we get from Wong making his method to suddenly like infinite ways of typing? SPEAKER_04: So first of all, while Professor Wong really cracked this thing open, he wasn't alone. I mean, there were others who had been hammering and chipping away at this problem as well. So from the beginning, you had a few variations, a few different ways to type. However, after Woobie, things do really explode. Because underlying Woobie was this subtle but spectacular departure. SPEAKER_03: The keyboard changed from something where what you typed was what you got to a system where you were telling the machine certain features or characteristics of the Chinese character that you wanted on the page or I guess on the screen. SPEAKER_04: Again historian Tom Mullaney. SPEAKER_03: That seems like a minor distinction when you say it, but once you do that, once you have entered into a reality in which A is not equal to A, I don't, I push the button that has the little symbol A on it, and I no longer expect that symbol to appear on the paper or the screen. Effectively, I can set the letter A equal to any property of the Chinese character that I want. SPEAKER_04: A could equal that water component or that work component or something far more abstract. SPEAKER_03: Anything goes. And so in the early 1980s, different ideas about how to do this started to flood in. SPEAKER_06: Oh, you mean beyond Woobie? Oh, yes. SPEAKER_11: At that time, many people and companies developed their own IME. SPEAKER_04: This is Zhou Ming. SPEAKER_11: Zhou Ming, computer scientist in Microsoft Research Asia. SPEAKER_04: And he was really on the front line of this development. SPEAKER_11: Immediately, there are over 1,000 measures developed and put into use. SPEAKER_04: So just a couple of quick examples here. Some of these broke the characters into components that looked like English letters. Does that mean look at the characters and be like, I think there's a D in that picture? SPEAKER_04: Exactly. And then place those components on their English lookalike key. So A represented a sort of mountain peak looking component. Others looked to English spelling, so the component for tree was represented by the letter T. Others had you input just what was present in the four corners of the character. And then going even further afield, some of these don't even use letters at all. SPEAKER_03: They just use the numeral bank of the keyboard. SPEAKER_04: You know that square number pad on the right side of most keyboards? In essence, every character was given its own numeric code that you would tap in there. 303 dog 9080 fire 40... Almost like a clerk ringing up vegetables at a grocery store checkout. And we're just scratching the surface here. SPEAKER_06: I'm starting to dawn on me what you mean when you say if we go to that Starbucks, everybody would have their own preferred way of going from those 26 Roman letters to the thousands of different Chinese characters. SPEAKER_04: Right. And I'll say that the competition between these methods got heated. SPEAKER_11: Yeah, people are actually fighting each other. Really? Really. For example, Ming says at one conference he attended, someone actually had to be thrown SPEAKER_04: out because of a fight. SPEAKER_11: This kind of thing happens. SPEAKER_04: And what they were fighting and arguing over was just like with the typewriter way back when, speed. SPEAKER_03: Every single new input system, the inventor claimed we haven't achieved maximum speed yet and that my system, it's easier to use and faster. SPEAKER_04: And one way they went about this, pushing the limits of the speed, was by trying to predict what it was the typist was trying to say. SPEAKER_03: Both predictive text and auto-completion were anticipated in Chinese information technology decades before they were in English language computing and new media. To get to the character you want faster and faster. SPEAKER_04: So the way this began was you'd be typing in the components of the character, but before you'd finished typing them all in, it would guess what it thought you were going for and offer you a couple of options. SPEAKER_03: And it would give you those options ranked by the probability that this is the one you want. SPEAKER_04: But then even that wasn't fast enough. SPEAKER_03: Almost immediately people started to think about next character suggestions. SPEAKER_04: So predicting and suggesting not just the character you were trying to type, but also the next character, the next word you were going to type. SPEAKER_03: And so if someone types in the character bei, meaning north, it is a very high likelihood that the very next character is going to be jing for Beijing or maybe beifang for northern. So I'll give you that as a suggestion. SPEAKER_04: And keep in mind, this is the 1980s, a full decade before we had anything comparable here in the United States. Anyhow, right as all these technological changes were taking place, the Chinese language itself changed. SPEAKER_00: Tomorrow ABC News will begin conforming to the Chinese standardization of its language's spelling and pronunciation. Pinyin it's called. SPEAKER_04: China went all in on pinyin. Pinyin. SPEAKER_03: Pinyin is a way of using the Latin alphabet to spell out the sounds or the pronunciation of Chinese characters and words. SPEAKER_06: Interesting. It's an oral oral oral. Yes. A U. A U. It's an oral translation. Correct. SPEAKER_15: The big advantage of pinyin is that it more accurately reflects the actual Chinese pronunciation of a name or place. SPEAKER_04: So for example, Beijing, B E I J I N G, is pinyin for the two characters bei and jing. Now pinyin had been around for a while, but in the 1980s, right around the time Professor Wang saved the Chinese character from the threat of computers, the Chinese government started to prioritize pinyin in the classroom. SPEAKER_03: So that when a Chinese kindergartener begins developing literacy and reading and writing, they learn pinyin at the same time or even earlier than they start to learn Chinese characters. Really? Yeah. SPEAKER_04: And so these computer scientists who had spent years trying to figure out how to visually relate Chinese characters to the letters on a keyboard… SPEAKER_03: They think to themselves, basically we have the Chinese educational system teaching a way of relating the Latin alphabet to Chinese characters. So it would be kind of foolish not to exploit that. SPEAKER_04: Like we should start inputting characters by typing their sounds in pinyin. And now, of course, Professor Wang was staunchly opposed to this. SPEAKER_07: When we use pinyin to type, we lose sight of the Chinese character's form. And the form is the soul of a character. SPEAKER_13: It's like you're grabbing hold of a person and doing away with their flesh. SPEAKER_07: You can't express the meaning of a Chinese character by its sound. SPEAKER_07: And the more people use pinyin, the more screwed Chinese characters are. SPEAKER_04: Nonetheless, beginning in the early 1990s, Chinese input moved to phonetic pinyin input, SPEAKER_04: replacing character-shaped systems like Professor Wang's. Actually, at the moment, I don't know if you can hear me clearly. SPEAKER_07: I mean, to the point that, as Yang Yang told me, if you go into a Starbucks in China today, SPEAKER_04: yes people will be typing using different methods, but… SPEAKER_07: Just chances are they are typing with pinyin. SPEAKER_04: Some sort of pinyin editor. SPEAKER_07: And I mean, that's one of the things that actually saddens me after this interview. And because by all means, Professor Wang, he is right about it that you do forget how to write Chinese if you are so used to typing in pinyin. And that happens to me. You know, throughout our interviews that lasted so long, I didn't have the heart to tell him that I couldn't type in wu bi. Just to confirm that the young generation has no hope in preserving the Chinese culture anyhow. SPEAKER_04: SIMON OSTROVSKY But even as young Chinese people, I don't know, as they sit down at their computers or stare down at their phones, are being drawn away from this long, rich history of Chinese characters and towards this pinyin, phonetic future. The allure of speed and the search for the fastest way to type continues. SPEAKER_03: Absolutely. The question still remains, what is the best, fastest way to do this? SPEAKER_04: And so what you have today in China are these typing competitions. SPEAKER_03: There are typing competitions in Chinese. SPEAKER_04: Where these different methods and different typists face off. And these things are sort of a big deal. SPEAKER_03: They take place at the local level, at the national level. They're sometimes even televised. In a certain sense, it's like America's got talent for input. SPEAKER_04: This audio is from the finals of a competition back in 2016. Took place at China's e-sports hall in Beijing. And the broadcast opens with the audience looking down towards a young lady emcee who's SPEAKER_04: standing in front of ten or so desks, each with a computer on them. And before the race can begin, she invites the contestants out to stand with her on the SPEAKER_04: front of the stage. This crew of lanky, glasses and t-shirt wearing Han Chinese folks. SPEAKER_11: They introduce themselves one by one. SPEAKER_04: And then also SPEAKER_03: They declare which input method they'll be using. SPEAKER_04: Because oft times the folks who designed the input methods have actually hired and trained these super speedy typists to use their input method. SPEAKER_07: With the introductions done, the emcee sends the typists back to their keyboards, some SPEAKER_04: of which are interestingly blank, like they have no script on them at all. SPEAKER_03: And in essence, what happens is a text appears on the screen that no one in the competition has seen, the same text for everyone in the competition. SPEAKER_07: And then, you know, the stopwatch starts. SPEAKER_04: And the race is on. SPEAKER_03: Just like, I mean, they're just like, it's like unbelievable. The speed at which they're going. SPEAKER_04: The room is totally silent other than the clacking of keys. The cameras cutting between contestants, capturing these over the shoulder shots of their screens, just filling with text. And when they do linger on one typist's screen long enough. And really, you'd need to almost go frame by frame to catch this. But what you see is a typist inputting a string of sort of nonsense letters, which prompts a little tiny box to pop up with five or so options, which they then select from with one final keystroke. SPEAKER_06: How many, like, words, characters per minute can they type? SPEAKER_04: 244. What? Was the winning. Yeah, that's insane. That's insane. SPEAKER_06: Yeah. I didn't understand. I did not understand, Simon. That's so fast. Oh, my God. Yeah. My dad, who's the fastest typist I know, he can only do like 80. That's that's that is that's kind of wild. SPEAKER_04: And wilder still, in this competition, the winning typist was using. SPEAKER_13: Woobi. Really? Yes. SPEAKER_13: The guy who typed 244 characters a minute was using Professor Wong's Woobi. SPEAKER_04: Wow. SPEAKER_06: Whoa. Yeah. That's so they're clobbering us for speed, but also able to do that in a way that preserves character writing. SPEAKER_04: And this is not uncommon. Like oftentimes in these competitions, it's these older woobi like input methods that SPEAKER_03: win. Ironically, by all accounts, their top speeds are faster than the top possible speeds of phonetic input. Wow. SPEAKER_06: So wait. But then if he's made this thing that is like so blazingly fast and also is able to sort of preserve Chinese way of writing, goes back thousands of years. Why is it that these other input methods, these phonetic based methods are winning in terms of usage? Right. SPEAKER_04: Well, the reason there is pretty much the Chinese government. SPEAKER_03: The Chinese state promote the idea of phonetic based input systems really for one major reason. SPEAKER_04: One of the same reasons they prioritize teaching pinyin in school. The unification of the Chinese language. SPEAKER_04: Because although when we think of the Chinese language, we think, oh, there's Mandarin and Cantonese. In reality, when it comes to speaking, there are dozens of different Chinese languages. Cantonese, Shanghainese, Fujianese. Languages that sound totally different, but on the page look the exact same because they're all using the same characters. Now with a structure shape based input like woobi, where you're describing what the character looks like, you can type and still maintain your spoken language. SPEAKER_03: It doesn't care if you speak Cantonese or Fujianese or something or so forth, because you're typing it based on what the character looks like, not how you pronounce it. But if you get people having to learn phonetic based input systems, they have no choice really, but to learn to type and speak the standard pronunciation of every character. SPEAKER_08: SPEAKER_04: And so now, in a sense, the ubiquity of the quri keyboard is being deployed to erase difference and quiet descent. Look no further than woobi. SPEAKER_07: The very commission that was closed down by woobi. SPEAKER_04: The commission on language reform. SPEAKER_13: They came back to life. SPEAKER_07: And they kicked the woobi method out of schools. SPEAKER_04: And you can argue that which typing method you use, how you type, has a real impact that goes beyond the death of the Chinese character or beyond the government's desire for unification of the language, beyond China itself. And so let me give you an admittedly small example of this. There's this aptly named thing called the quri effect. Have you heard of the quri effect? So this is an English study. It was initially done here in the States in the early 2000s. They did a bunch of tests on people trying to find what feelings they associated with words. And what they found was that people like words that have more letters in them typed from the right hand of a quri keyboard than not. SPEAKER_06: No way. So the u's and the l's and the p's and the k's and the m's and the j's, those are having more positive associations than the q w's x's z's r's. Yeah. SPEAKER_04: People like o more than they like e. This has been found in English and Spanish and German and in Dutch, both for right handed people and left handed people. But couldn't that just be that the keyboard was designed so that the letters that we like SPEAKER_06: happen to just be on the right side? Do you know what I mean? Like is it a chicken or the egg type of situation? SPEAKER_04: It likely is not that. It's likely not that that those letters were intentionally placed there. And there are a variety of stories about how the layout of the quri keyboard happened. But sort of one of the indisputed facts is if you look at the top row of your keyboard, quri row, it has all of the letters of the word typewriter in it. T y p e r i t. Yeah. They're all there. And the story goes that the reason it was laid out this way is because you had these salesmen who would show up and want to demo the product, demo this typewriter. But these guys didn't know how to type. So they put all the letters for typewriter on the top row so they could very quickly punch out the word typewriter in their demo. Oh wow. SPEAKER_06: So it's totally arbitrary. Like the data, it was put in the order it was put for reasons that have nothing to do with anything we're talking about. SPEAKER_04: Yes, correct. And so there is some evidence that the layout of the keyboard created those left-right preferences rather than the other way around. So just a couple of years ago, researchers asked, OK, has our feeling towards letters changed over time? And so what they did was they got social security records from the 1960s through 2012 and they looked at names of babies being born. And they decided we're going to pick 1990 as our year that the QWERTY keyboard became ubiquitous. And let's look at the prevalence of names with more right-handed letters than left before 1990 and after. And it spikes after 1990. No way. It's crazy. SPEAKER_06: So suddenly a lot of Pauls and a lot of like Lea's and it starts to appear? Yep. That is bizarre. SPEAKER_04: So like Simon is four right hand, one left hand. JAD is one right hand, two left hand. So you and I bear out the idea. Yeah. SPEAKER_06: You know, it's funny. It's like there's what? Who is it? Was it Wittgenstein? I don't think it was Wittgenstein. Heidegger? Was it a Heidegger thing? Somebody, one of those nihilistic German philosophers had this idea that the hammer isn't just a tool. The hammer actually feeds back. The hammer changes the hand. Right. It's interesting to me that this arbitrary leftover, arguably outdated QWERTY keyboard that we're all stuck with is actually influencing our preferences when it comes to naming our offspring. I mean, who knows what else it's doing? It's probably doing all kinds of weird things to us. Wait, do we know? Sorry. Just to get back on track. Do we know? Yes. Is this QWERTY naming thing is influencing the way Chinese people name their kids? SPEAKER_04: Right. Well, so with the QWERTY effect in general, the lab that I spoke to looked into studying it in China. They had some Chinese grad students actually who wanted to see if it applied back in China. But in part, I think because there are so many different ways to type, they weren't methodologically able to figure out how to do it. But I will say the idea you bring up of the hammer changing the hand, like where Chinese typing is going, I think is sort of the hammer changing the hand on steroids. What do you mean? SPEAKER_03: Now we've got this new phase of this era of input, which is cloud input. SPEAKER_04: Typing that uses artificial intelligence. SPEAKER_03: In the United States, I would say the way that people are most familiar with this is the Google search bar that when you start to type, it will give you suggestions not based on the absolute mathematical probability of the frequency of a word that you might be doing, but really what's hot in the news and what other people are searching for. SPEAKER_04: However, in China, this goes way beyond search engine suggestions. SPEAKER_03: In Microsoft Word, this is not a search field. This is like Microsoft Word. And you say, okay, in the news today, some star has done something terrible and fallen from grace. And so some input user is starting to enter the name of this befallen pop star. The system is smart enough to say, okay, this user has never entered this person's name before, but up in the cloud, millions of people are entering this particular person's name. Let's give this local user that suggestion based upon what users elsewhere in the cloud are doing. And so with this cloud-based input, like everything you write, every keystroke, every word is SPEAKER_04: being in some way influenced by what everyone else is typing. SPEAKER_03: It is totally unparalleled in the Western world. There is nothing even close to this. And in fact, now, arguably over the last two decades, there has been an inversion in which Chinese in the computational world is arguably the fastest language in the realm of typing. SPEAKER_04: And so we're the ones now looking East, seeing these technologies and wondering like, shit, how do we catch up? Like in the course of 40 years, China, they've leapfrogged us. SPEAKER_06: That's what it is. It feels like a crazy leapfrog. But with this cloud input, there's also a question of like, do we want to catch up to SPEAKER_04: that? SPEAKER_03: It's both invigorating, exciting, strange, and also eerie and post-futuristic. Because right now it's guessing what the writer already wants to say. But what happens when the speed of suggestion outstrips the speed of thought and the speed of intention? And what it says is, you know, Simon, what if you did this and you say, wow, actually, that's a really good suggestion. Thank you. Yes, I will do that. At that point, we have co-writing. And once we move into the stage of, further into the stage of suggested writing, then we're not, it's kind of like a writing partner that's giving you a good suggestion. But of course, it's a writing partner who's also the writing partner of thousands of other writers at that exact moment. And that is, from my standpoint, a pretty terrifying scenario. SPEAKER_04: Well, right, because it's a writing partner with an agenda potentially. SPEAKER_03: It is a writing partner. I mean, and not perhaps. There is agenda, absolutely. SPEAKER_08: I bet you will never type quite the same way again, Jed Admiral Rod. SPEAKER_06: No, I definitely am looking at my QWERTY right now and I'm very, I don't trust you. Got my eye on you, QWERTY. SPEAKER_04: It's watching YouTube. You're saying apparently. SPEAKER_06: Producer Simon Adler. The story was reported and produced by Simon with reporting assistance by Young Young. Original music throughout the piece by Simon. Special thanks again to Young Young. Without her, the story would not have happened. Also to Tom Malaney for his years of research on this topic and for sending us down this path to begin with. And to Daniel Casasanto for teaching us about the QWERTY effect. Joshua Suter, Marion Renaud, David Mosher, Chen Gao, Rianco Chang, Martian Wickery, and Yingying Lu. Next week, we're going to stay international but in a very different part of the world. I'm Jed Admiral Rod. Thanks for listening. Hi, this is Mr. Fiedler's fifth grade class calling in from Monona, Wisconsin. SPEAKER_08: Radio Lab was created by Chad Arbron. It's headed by Sover Euler, Lulu Miller, and Let's Keep Naps on our controls. Till then, Chad's the path of adventure. Our second clue. Simon Adler, Jeremy Bloom, backup wrestler, Rachel Kucic, Ekadee Foster-Keys, W. Harry SPEAKER_10: Fortuner, David Gable, Mavia Paz-Gutuyevas, Sindhu Nayanasumbandam, Matt Kielty, Annie McEwen, Alex Neeson, Sarah Khari, Ana Kuwet-Paz, Sarah Shafak, Ariyana Wah, Pat Althurs, and SPEAKER_09: Molly Webster with help from Sachie Kejima-Molke. Our fact checkers are DeAnn Kelly, Emily Krieger, and Natalie Middleton. Hi, this is Finn calling from Storrs, Connecticut. SPEAKER_20: Leadership support for Radio Lab science programming is provided by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Science Sandbox, the Simons Foundation Initiative, and the John Templeton Foundation. Foundational support for Radio Lab was provided by the Alfred B. Sloan Foundation. SPEAKER_12: WNYC Studios is supported by On Being with Krista Tippett. I'm Krista Tippett of On Being, where we take up the big questions of meaning for this world now. In our new podcast season, we're going to have a different human conversation about AI and also the intelligence of our bodies, grief and joy, social creativity and poetry, and so much more. A conversation to live by every Thursday.