Radiolab

The episode "Small Potatoes" from Radiolab explores the significance of ordinary objects and experiences, often overlooked in daily life. The narrative is woven around various stories that highlight how mundane items can hold profound meanings and evoke deep emotions. The episode begins with a peculiar museum in rural Vermont, created by ICU nurse Claire Dolan. This museum, housed in a dilapidated barn, features everyday objects like matchboxes, paperclips, and furniture legs, arranged to evoke thought and appreciation for the mundane. The museum attracts visitors who drive hours to experience the ordinary in a new light, illustrating how common items can be seen as extraordinary through thoughtful presentation. Another story focuses on the philosophical musings of a grain of sand, voiced by a guest on the podcast "Everything is Alive." This segment delves into the existential reflections of inanimate objects, providing a unique perspective on existence and humanity's interaction with the mundane. The narrative then shifts to a more personal tone with the story of filmmaker Agnes Varda, who found beauty and meaning in discarded potatoes that she encountered while filming a documentary. Varda's fascination with potatoes, especially those shaped like hearts, led her to create an art installation featuring these ordinary tubers. This installation not only highlighted the overlooked beauty of potatoes but also encouraged viewers to find wonder in everyday simplicity. Throughout the episode, Radiolab challenges listeners to reconsider their perspectives on the ordinary, suggesting that there is a rich tapestry of life and experience to be found in what may initially seem trivial or mundane. The stories shared illustrate that by paying closer attention to the world around us, we can uncover new layers of meaning and connection in our everyday lives.

In the episode "The Distance of the Moon" from Radiolab, Lulu Miller introduces a story from Italo Calvino, read during a live storytelling event. The narrative, derived from Calvino's "Cosmic Comics," is a whimsical and imaginative exploration of the moon's relationship with Earth. It is set in a time when the moon was much closer to Earth, so close that people could climb onto it with the help of ladders. The story is narrated by a character who vividly recounts adventures on the moon's surface, where the moon's gravitational pull was a tangible force, affecting everything from the tides to personal relationships. The tale unfolds with descriptions of collecting moon milk, a substance akin to thick cream formed from organic and inorganic matter on the moon's surface. The narrator and his companions, including a deaf cousin who displays a unique affinity for the moon, engage in surreal exploits, harvesting this lunar substance and experiencing the peculiar gravitational interplay between the moon and Earth. The narrative is rich with fantastical elements, such as seas of cheese and creatures that float between the moon and Earth. As the story progresses, personal dynamics emerge, particularly the narrator's unrequited love for the captain's wife and her own infatuation with the narrator's cousin. These human elements contrast with the cosmic setting, creating a poignant juxtaposition between the vast, impersonal universe and the intimate, human emotions. The moon eventually begins to drift away, a change that mirrors the shifts in personal relationships and desires. The narrative culminates in a dramatic moment when the characters must grapple with the physical and emotional distances that define their existence. Calvino's story, as presented in this Radiolab episode, blends scientific curiosity with literary imagination, using the moon as a backdrop for exploring human desires and relationships. The episode not only delves into the narrative itself but also reflects on the nature of storytelling and the human need to find meaning in the cosmos.

In the episode titled "The Moon Itself" from Radiolab, the hosts and their guests embark on a celestial journey to explore the significance, mysteries, and hypothetical scenarios related to the moon. The episode begins with the anticipation of an upcoming total eclipse that will sweep across North America, sparking a conversation about the moon's role in this awe-inspiring event. Despite the moon being the cause of the eclipse, the discussion highlights how conversations often focus more on the sun or the Earth's reactions, leaving the moon somewhat overlooked. Senior correspondent Molly Webster introduces the main theme by expressing a desire to shift the focus onto the moon itself, aiming to understand it beyond its basic characteristics known to most people. This leads to an exploration of the moon's formation, which, according to experts, resulted from a colossal impact between the early Earth and another planetary body. This event not only gave birth to the moon but also significantly shaped the Earth's composition and trajectory. The narrative delves into the scientific theories surrounding the moon's creation, its geological features, and its profound influence on Earth, from tides and ecosystems to the potential impact on the planet's magnetic field. The episode also entertains a whimsical yet thought-provoking scenario inspired by the film "Despicable Me," where the moon is suddenly removed from the sky. This hypothetical situation serves as a springboard for discussions on the immediate and long-term consequences Earth and its inhabitants would face without the moon. From ecological collapses and changes in animal behavior to the potential cessation of the Earth's magnetic field, the scenario underscores the moon's integral role in maintaining the balance and biodiversity of our planet. As the eclipse approaches, the episode captures the excitement and preparations of people across North America, from mass weddings in Arkansas to special events in baseball stadiums. This collective anticipation for the eclipse mirrors the episode's broader aim to celebrate and deepen our understanding of the moon. Through a blend of scientific insights, imaginative storytelling, and reflections on human curiosity, "The Moon Itself" invites listeners to look up at the night sky with renewed wonder and appreciation for our closest celestial neighbor.

In the episode titled "Drawn Onward" from the Radiolab podcast, the hosts delve into the fascinating world of palindromes, marking the occasion of a unique palindrome date, April 2, 2024 (4-2-24). The episode celebrates this occurrence, suggesting whimsical ways to honor palindrome dates, such as palindrome parties featuring symmetrically themed foods and activities. The discussion extends beyond mere date patterns, exploring the concept of palindromes in various forms, including audio documentaries. The centerpiece of the episode is an innovative audio piece from the BBC show Shortcuts, specifically from their episode "Meeting Myself, Coming Back." This piece, also titled "Drawn Onward," is an audio palindrome that plays the same forwards and backwards. It required extensive production effort to achieve this symmetry, blending voices, sound design, and music to create a unique listening experience. The documentary explores themes of immigration, home, and identity through the stories of individuals from diverse backgrounds. These narratives weave together to form a sonic journey that reflects on the complex emotions associated with leaving one's homeland and the yearning to return, ultimately ending where it begins, in true palindrome fashion. "Drawn Onward" stands out not only for its technical achievement but also for its emotional depth. It captures the universal experience of diaspora communities, highlighting the challenges of adapting to new environments while holding onto cultural roots. The documentary's structure mirrors the cyclical nature of these experiences, emphasizing the idea that moving forward often involves looking back. This innovative approach to storytelling exemplifies the episode's broader theme of finding profound meaning in patterns and symmetries, both in life and in art. The episode concludes with reflections on the significance of palindromes and a playful suggestion to make the word "palindrome" itself a palindrome. This lighthearted ending underscores the episode's exploration of language, culture, and human connection through the lens of symmetry and repetition. Through its creative content and thoughtful presentation, "Drawn Onward" invites listeners to contemplate the ways in which our lives are shaped by the patterns we observe and the stories we tell.

"Finding Emilie" is a deeply moving story that unfolds in three parts, chronicling the journey of Emilie Gossio and her boyfriend, Alan Lundgaard, after Emilie suffers a catastrophic accident. The tale begins on a seemingly ordinary day in Brooklyn, where Emilie, an art student taking a break to work for a local artist, and Alan, also an art student, share a small loft. Emilie decides to bike to work, a decision that leads to a tragic accident involving an 18-wheeler truck, leaving her severely injured and hospitalized. Emilie's condition is dire. She has multiple fractures, her abdomen is opened to allow her to breathe, and she is swollen beyond recognition. The doctors are pessimistic about her chances of recovery, suggesting she might be brain dead. Emilie's family and Alan are devastated but refuse to give up hope. Alan, in particular, is determined to find a way to communicate with Emilie, despite the doctors' doubts about her cognitive abilities. Inspired by the story of Helen Keller and Annie Sullivan, Alan devises a method to communicate with Emilie by tracing letters on her hand. This breakthrough moment occurs when Emilie responds to Alan's message of love, indicating she is still cognitively present. This discovery leads to Emilie being transferred to a rehabilitation center instead of a nursing home, marking the beginning of her long journey to recovery. Emilie's rehabilitation is arduous but fruitful. She learns to walk again and, although she remains blind, she finds new ways to engage with the world and continue her art. Emilie's story is not just one of personal triumph but also a testament to the power of love, perseverance, and the human spirit's resilience. Years after the accident, Emilie has made significant progress. She completes an MFA program at Yale and becomes a celebrated artist, with her work exhibited in museums and galleries worldwide. Her art evolves to reflect her experiences, focusing on memories, dreams, and the intersectionality of the experiences of disabled people and animals. Emilie's relationship with her guide dog, London, and her partner, Kirby, highlights themes of love, intimacy, and co-dependency, which she explores in her exhibit at the Queens Museum. "Finding Emilie" is a story of remarkable recovery, the transformative power of art, and the enduring strength of human connections. It serves as a powerful reminder of the capacity for growth and adaptation in the face of unimaginable adversity.

The "Throughline: Dare to Dissent" episode delves into the profound impact of dissenting voices throughout history, focusing on individuals who dared to stand against their own communities or in-groups for the sake of truth and justice. The episode is structured into three acts, each narrating a cinematic story of dissent, demonstrating how acts of defiance, though seemingly unsuccessful at the moment, can lead to significant, long-lasting effects. The first story highlights the bravery of Sophie Scholl, a young German woman who, along with her brother Hans and other members of the White Rose group, resisted the Nazi regime during World War II. Despite initially being a supporter of the Hitler Youth, Sophie's experiences, including her own arrest, led her to question and ultimately oppose the atrocities committed by the Nazis. The White Rose group distributed pamphlets urging Germans to resist the Nazi party, an act of defiance that ultimately led to Sophie and Hans' execution. However, their message lived on, inspiring others and being commemorated in Germany post-war. The second story shifts focus to the United States, recounting the later years of Martin Luther King Jr.'s life, particularly his opposition to the Vietnam War and his efforts to address economic inequality alongside racial injustice. Despite facing criticism from both the government and some supporters for expanding his activism beyond civil rights to include criticism of American capitalism and the war in Vietnam, King's unwavering commitment to justice and equality showcased the power and necessity of dissent within one's own ranks. His assassination marked the loss of a powerful voice for change, but his legacy continues to influence movements for justice and equality. The episode underscores the importance of dissent, not just as a means of opposing external adversaries but also as a crucial tool for challenging and improving one's own community or group. Through the stories of Sophie Scholl and Martin Luther King Jr., "Throughline: Dare to Dissent" illustrates the courage required to stand up for one's beliefs and the profound impact such actions can have on society, even at great personal cost.

In the episode titled "Staph Retreat," Latif Nasser revisits a story he reported in 2015, which delves into the realms of science, miracles, Vikings, and a potentially hazardous kitchen experiment. The narrative begins with the accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928, a breakthrough that transformed the treatment of infectious diseases. However, the episode quickly shifts focus to the emergence of antibiotic resistance, a phenomenon that was observed almost concurrently with the introduction of penicillin and other antibiotics. This resistance has led to an arms race between new drugs and evolving bacteria, resulting in a dire situation where modern medicine is running out of effective antibiotics. The story then takes an intriguing turn as Nasser introduces Dr. Christina Lee, a Viking studies scholar, and Dr. Freya Harrison, a microbiologist, who embark on an unusual collaboration. Inspired by their shared interests in history and microbiology, they decide to test a 1,100-year-old remedy for eye infections found in Bald's Leechbook, an ancient Anglo-Saxon medical text. The remedy, which includes ingredients such as onion, garlic, wine, and bile from a cow's stomach, was believed to be effective against styes, infections caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. Despite initial skepticism, their experiment shows that the ancient concoction is remarkably effective at killing antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including MRSA, a notorious superbug. This discovery opens up a fascinating discussion about the potential of ancient remedies in the fight against antibiotic resistance. The episode explores the idea that historical medical practices, often dismissed as superstition, may hold valuable insights for modern science. It suggests that by revisiting and reevaluating these ancient cures, researchers might find new solutions to contemporary health crises. The story of Bald's Leechbook serves as a reminder that progress is not always linear and that the past may offer unexpected resources for the future. "Staph Retreat" ultimately presents a compelling narrative that bridges the gap between the past and the present, challenging listeners to reconsider their perceptions of medical history and the ongoing battle against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Through the unlikely partnership of a historian and a microbiologist, the episode highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and the potential benefits of combining historical knowledge with scientific inquiry.

In this episode of Radiolab titled "Hold On," the story begins with a focus on the 988 suicide and crisis lifeline, a federal response to the suicide crisis in the United States. The episode narrates the experience of Donovan McBride, a law student in Chicago who found himself in a major depressive episode during the summer of 2020 amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Feeling closer to death than ever before, Donovan decided to call the 988 number, seeking help during one of the darkest moments of his life. However, he was met with a hold message and music, which, while intended to be reassuring, felt incongruous with the gravity of his situation. Despite this, Donovan stayed on the line and found comfort in speaking with a counselor, highlighting the critical role of the 988 lifeline in providing support to those in crisis. The episode then delves into the history and evolution of suicide prevention hotlines, tracing back to the establishment of the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Center in 1958 by Ed Schneidman, Norman Farborough, and Robert Littman. This initiative was born out of the realization that simply listening to people in crisis could significantly alleviate their desire to end their lives. However, as suicide prevention hotlines proliferated across the country, the lack of standardization and professional training among volunteers became a concern. This led to the federal government stepping in to centralize and standardize the system, resulting in the creation of the 988 lifeline. Despite the professionalism and empathy of the counselors, the episode highlights a significant challenge: the hold music and message. With an aim to improve the caller experience and reduce the number of people hanging up while on hold, the 988 team embarked on a project to find the most effective hold music. After conducting public research and an A/B test, they settled on a new hold music choice, which led to a slight increase in the number of people staying on the line. The episode underscores the complexity of catering to the diverse emotional states of callers and the importance of every detail in providing support to those in crisis. In the latter part of the episode, the story of Porochista Kapoor is shared. She called 988 during a moment of severe depression and found the experience, from the hold music to the conversation with the counselor, to be comforting and helpful. This personal account emphasizes the lifeline's impact on individuals facing mental health crises. Finally, the episode explores the potential for further improvement in the hold music and overall caller experience. Musician Sean Carey is introduced, who takes on the challenge of creating a new piece of hold music that aims to feel like a hug in audio form, offering warmth and comfort to those in need. The episode concludes with a reflection on the ongoing efforts to enhance the effectiveness of the 988 suicide and crisis lifeline, highlighting the importance of empathy, innovation, and continuous improvement in supporting individuals during their most vulnerable moments.

Title: G - The World's Smartest Animal Summary: The episode explores animal intelligence through a contest to determine the world's smartest animal. Contenders made cases for the intelligence of the crow, slime mold, sperm whale, chicken, raccoon, quokka, and koala. In the first round, Tracy argued that crows are highly intelligent, citing their tool use, communication skills, funerals, facial recognition abilities, and capacity for holding grudges. Jordan made the case for slime molds, describing how they solve mazes, map transport systems, and demonstrate altruistic behavior. Laurel highlighted the complex social structures, communication methods, and empathy of sperm whales. Dan argued for the intelligence of chickens, not because they are actually smart, but because their ability to beat humans at tic-tac-toe reveals our own lack of intelligence. The judges voted the sperm whale as the winner. In the second round, Laurel and Dan teamed up to advocate for the intelligence of raccoons, describing their puzzle-solving abilities, curiosity, and adaptation to urban environments. Tracy and Jordan formed an unlikely duo arguing for marsupials - Tracy highlighted the quokka's strategic instincts, while Jordan made a tongue-in-cheek case for the koala's intelligence in optimizing life's simple pleasures. The audience vote resulted in the sperm whale being crowned the world's smartest animal. The episode explores shifting perspectives on intelligence by highlighting unexpected capabilities in underrated creatures.

Title: Cheating Death Summary: Producer Maria Paz-Gutierrez embarks on a quest to try to "cheat" or beat death, inspired by the classic film The Seventh Seal. She assembles a team of experts to represent "death" and play out the game. Death's opening moves involve all the potential accidents and random events that could end a life suddenly. Maria tries to counter by staying safe at home. But the experts explain that disease and bodily deterioration over time still lead to inevitable death. Even the fundamental cellular processes that sustain life also damage DNA and cause aging. Maria learns about promising research into using stem cells to repair age-related cellular damage. This makes her wonder if science might one day allow humans to mimic the "immortal jellyfish" which can revert back to a youthful polyp state after injury. However, the experts dash her hopes - we would lose our memories and identity in the process. Ultimately, Maria grapples with the fact that death and impermanence seem fundamentally woven into the physical laws of the universe. Stars burn out, galaxies drift apart, and entropy increases. The ordered state required for life is fleeting. Facing the end of all things, Maria is left searching for some satisfying explanation for why death exists. But in the end, the question has no clear answer. Death remains an inevitability that we cannot control or fully comprehend.

The episode starts with the hosts Leif and Lulu announcing they have some breaking news about Zouzvay. Zouzvay refers to the small planetary body that orbits between Venus and the Sun that was covered in a previous episode. In that episode, the hosts proposed naming the object Zouzvay since it did not yet have an official name. They reveal that the International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Small Body Nomenclature has now officially voted to approve the name Zouzvay. The group's secretary Gareth Williams confirms the voting results over the phone. The discoverer of Zouzvay, Brian Skiff, is also excited by the news. Zouzvay will be the first object of its kind to get a non-mythological name, having narrowly scraped by the rules due to the cute backstory behind the name originating from a poster typo. The other big news is that the hosts have worked with the IAU to open up a contest for listeners to propose and vote on mythological names for a quasi-moon of Earth. Although details are still being worked out, the contest will be open to submissions from all cultures and mythologies. The hosts encourage listeners to start brainstorming ideas to propose a name and justification for an Earth quasi-moon. This rare opportunity allows the general public to participate in officially naming a celestial object.

The excerpt is from a podcast called Blindspot that tells the story of a group of women in prison in the 1990s who organized to fight for recognition and treatment of HIV/AIDS in women. At the time, the official symptoms of AIDS were based only on male patients, meaning signs of women's weakened immune systems were ignored. The excerpt introduces Katrina Haslip, a woman imprisoned at Bedford Hills Correctional Facility, who helped bring women together across divisions to support those living with HIV/AIDS and push for medical care. It describes the stigma and fear surrounding AIDS in the prison. The organizing group aimed to include a diverse range of women to stand up for those impacted by the epidemic. Unfortunately without the full transcript I am unable to provide a more complete summary across multiple paragraphs. Let me know if you have any other questions!

The episode begins with host Latif Nasser discovering a mysterious "moon" labeled "Zoosve" next to Venus on a solar system poster in his son's bedroom. Intrigued, Nasser investigates and learns that Zoosve is actually a quasi-moon called 2002 VE68 that orbits the Sun while also orbiting Venus. Nasser explores the history of 2002 VE68, including its discovery by astronomer Brian Skiff during an asteroid search program in the 1990s. He also speaks to scientists who have studied its strange dual orbit, realizing 2002 VE68 is the first known quasi-moon ever discovered. Nasser becomes enchanted by 2002 VE68, seeing it as an unpredictable free spirit that defies the orderly clockwork model of the solar system. Wanting to memorialize the poster's typo, Nasser gets Skiff's approval to suggest renaming 2002 VE68 as "Zoosve." However, the name must be approved by the International Astronomical Union's Small Bodies Nomenclature committee. Nasser makes his case to secretary Gareth Williams, but runs into strict naming rules. When the 11 voting members are polled months later, the decision is still pending with two undecided votes. The episode ends with the renaming verdict unknown, mirroring the uncertainty of Zoosve's own orbit.

The story begins with Diane living in her apartment for over 15 years. One day she notices the window of the apartment across the way, which had always had curtains drawn. Suddenly the curtains are open, revealing a bedroom occupied by a young couple in their 20s. Diane is bothered at first by their constant nudity and sexual activity clearly visible through the window. Over time, Diane and her husband accept the couple as part of their lives. The couple comes to represent Diane and her husband's carefree past before having a child. After over a year passes, the couple is less frequently in the apartment. Then one day Diane and her husband notice a naked woman who seems unfamiliar sitting in the window. They realize it is the same woman, but she and her boyfriend have changed significantly. The previously fit young man is now extremely thin and bald. Diane watches the window constantly, seeing the skeletal young man lying in bed as the woman cares for him. It becomes clear he is gravely ill. Diane worries for him even while away over Christmas. When she returns, he is still alive but appears even more diminished. Many people come to the apartment, likely visiting him before he dies. Diane imagines they are his mother, brother and the woman's sister. One night it seems the young man is nearing death. His mother and girlfriend lie on either side of him in bed. The next day men from the coroner arrive to take away his body. In a strange impulse, Diane runs outside to see them load his sheet-wrapped body into a van. The girlfriend sees Diane watching but does not know she had been observing them privately for so long. Diane feels ashamed, realizing she should not have intruded on their lives this way. In the aftermath, Diane tries to learn the young man's identity from obituaries but never finds it. She watches the girlfriend grieve and recover. If she met the woman, Diane would not admit to spying on her through the window. Ultimately, reflecting on her own youth in that apartment, Diane realizes she likely had no idea neighbors could see into her uncurtained bedroom either.

The episode explores several questions listeners had submitted about quirks of the human body. In the first segment, reporter Molly Webster investigates why humans have just one airway that handles both eating and breathing, making choking possible. She traces it back to our fish ancestors that breathed through gills while eating through their guts. As fish evolved into land animals, lungs developed as an outgrowth of the gut to pull in air. This legacy design means our airway and esophagus still cross, allowing food to sometimes block breathing. In the second segment, producer Alan Gafinsky sings the story of listener Logan Shannon who wonders where lotion goes when absorbed into skin. He explores how ingredients in lotions can permeate deeper through pores and blood vessels, while other components remain on the skin's surface before sloughing off. This leads to musings on the interconnected flows between bodies and the wider environment. The third segment features producer Becca Bressler’s search for scientific proof behind an “As Seen on TV” suction device that claims to remove mosquito spit after bites to prevent itching and swelling. While one small industry-funded study shows benefit, scientists cast doubt that the device could physically draw out any substances. Becca grapples with preferring a mechanical explanation over the possibility of placebo effect driven by belief in the product. She links this to wanting external validation around past trauma. But ultimately finds some peace in simply being believed. The episode wraps up with a fourth quirky question - are there any body parts humans have three of? After a search, the tricuspid heart valves emerge as the best example of a functional “three” - with their three flaps apiece, critical for proper blood flow.

The episode begins by discussing the incredible story of two 10-year-old girls named Laura Buxton living 140 miles apart in England. In 2001, one Laura attached a message to a red balloon and let it go, hoping the finder would return it to her. Amazingly, the balloon traveled all the way to the other Laura's house. The odds of this happening randomly seemed infinitesimal, leading the girls to believe it was fate or destiny that brought them together. The episode then explores the role of chance and randomness in life more broadly. It discusses human psychology and why we have trouble accepting coincidences as truly random. We tend to find meaning and see patterns even when events are actually random. Concepts from probability and statistics are invoked to show how uncommon events are actually likely to occur frequently in a large population over time. The second half of the episode dives deeper into the surprisingly chaotic mechanics underlying life at the genetic level. Even basic cell functions like genes expressing proteins turn out to be remarkably noisy and sloppy. This challenges the notion that life is an orderly, clockwork process. The program explores how complex life emerges from this seemingly random biochemical disorder. The episode suggests that perhaps this randomness introduces an element of freedom, even if we can't fully control outcomes. In the end, the episode doesn't draw definitive conclusions but marvels at the mystery of how predictable, purposeful life springs from the noise and chaos bubbling underneath. Whether by amazing coincidence or fate, the complexity of existence manages to reveal itself despite the erratic nature of its origins.

Title: Numbers The episode explores the world of numbers, including how we perceive and understand numbers intuitively versus the abstract number systems we use. It features several stories related to numbers: - Scientist Frank Benford noticed number patterns in logarithm tables, leading to "Benford's Law" about the frequency distribution of first digits. This law has been used to detect financial fraud. - Experiments show babies have an innate "number sense" based on ratios and logarithmic thinking, different than adults' views of numbers. Kids take years to learn formal number concepts. - Mathematician Paul Erdős had an enormous influence in his field, collaborating with over 500 colleagues directly and thousands more through academic genealogy. His collaborators use "Erdős numbers" to show their connection to him. - A professor corresponds for years with his high school math teacher through math problems and puzzles. When emotional topics come up, the professor ignores them, valuing math as a "pristine world." Eventually he reconnects more meaningfully with his old teacher. The episode explores numbers through emotion, intuition, and human connection, not just abstract logic. It highlights how numbers permeate our lives in many ways, both rational and irrational.

Paragraph 1: Dr. Blair Bigham was an emergency room doctor who realized modern medicine can prolong dying in ways that are inhumane. He wrote a book called "Death Interrupted" about how the desire to save lives can sometimes cause patients to die too late, hooked up to machines against their wishes. Paragraph 2: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Dr. Bigham saw many extreme examples of patients kept alive by technology long past the point of recovery. This motivated him to speak out about letting nature take its course when there is no hope. His book got attention and started conversations about end-of-life care. Paragraph 3: Two months later, Dr. Bigham's own father was diagnosed with late-stage pancreatic cancer after struggling with stomach pain. Despite Dr. Bigham's medical knowledge, he desperately pursued surgery and experimental treatments, unwilling to accept his father's terminal prognosis. In the end, his father had to tell him to stop and focus on comfort. Paragraph 4: Dr. Bigham realized he embodied the very tendency he criticized - to use technology to prolong life at all costs. He could not let go, even though he promoted palliative care in his ICU work. His story illustrates how hard it is for anyone to accept a loved one's inevitable death. In the end, his father officiated his wedding just before passing, finding meaning in giving him that beginning.

The episode features the story of Bob Milne, an acclaimed ragtime piano player with an extraordinary relationship with music. Bob has the ability to hear multiple symphonies simultaneously in his head and visualize the orchestras playing them in vivid detail. Neurologist Kirsten Batterman first heard of Bob's talents and decided to study him. She conducted experiments comparing Bob to Peter Perry, a professional conductor. In the tests, Bob and Perry were asked to memorize four symphonies and then mentally play them back while being scanned in an MRI machine. The researchers would stop them at random points and ask them to identify where exactly they were in the music. While Perry did well with one symphony, he struggled to mentally play two simultaneously. Bob, however, could play all four symphonies concurrently in his head, even tracking the exact timing and notes. His visualizations were equally stunning - he described seeing two full orchestras playing side-by-side in his mind's eye, seeing every musician and instrument in detail. Bob's extraordinary musical memory seems connected to the vivid emotions he associates with keys and chords. His visual imagination also plays a role, allowing him to mentally fly above the orchestras and focus on specific sections. Despite his talents, Bob lives a simple life, traveling the country in a motorhome to play ragtime concerts at small venues. His relationship with music is so profound, listening to recordings pales in comparison to what he hears in his mind.

Paragraph 1: The episode tells the story of Patrick Burley, who started going through puberty when he was a toddler due to a rare genetic disorder called testotoxicosis. His body produced testosterone from a very young age, causing him to develop physically much faster than normal. He looked like a teenager by the time he was 8 years old. Paragraph 2: Patrick struggled greatly with the condition, both physically and emotionally. He was aggressive and had behavioral issues, faced bullying for looking different, and felt constantly misunderstood. His early testosterone surge also gave him sexual urges he didn't understand. His parents and doctors tried to treat the condition with medications to slow puberty, but nothing worked completely. Paragraph 3: When Patrick was 12, doctors took him off medications to let him finish puberty. Without the drugs regulating him, his behavior spiraled out of control into fighting, graffiti, and drug use. This culminated with Patrick making the huge mistake of giving LSD to a classmate, leading to her hospitalization. Though remorseful, this marked a turning point where Patrick realized he needed to change. Paragraph 4: In high school, as Patrick caught up physically to his peers, he turned himself around - stopping drugs, focusing on school, and making new friends. He eventually attended Dartmouth College, finding normalcy and acceptance there after a lifetime of feeling different. As an adult now, Patrick has rarely spoken about his condition publicly, but realizes it profoundly shaped who he is. When he and his wife confronted the decision to screen their embryos to avoid passing on the disorder, Patrick grappled with rejecting what his father called "the thing that defines you."

Title: Shrink Main Points: - In 2003, scientist Timothy Robotham discovered an unusually large virus, the size of bacteria, in a hospital cooling tower in England. He named it "Bradfordcoccus" but couldn't get it to grow. - French scientist Bernard La Scola later examined the virus, realized it looked more viral than bacterial, and got it to replicate in amoebas. He named it "Mimivirus." At 1,018 genes, it had far more genes than a typical virus. - Scientists then started finding more large viruses, including Mama virus (1,023 genes), Megavirus (1,120 genes), and Pandoravirus (2,500 genes), in various environments like soil, ocean sediment, animals, and humans. - These large viruses build viral factories inside host cells to replicate rather than just hijacking the host cell's machinery like regular viruses. Some can even get infected by virophages. - One hypothesis is that these giant viruses started off as free-living cells long ago. As they adapted to live inside other cells, they shed unnecessary genes and shrank down over evolutionary timescales, becoming the modern giant viruses we see today. So some viruses may have evolved from complexity to simplicity rather than the other way around. The episode illustrates that the line between life and non-life is blurrier than we might think, and that some lifeforms can evolve from independence to dependence on other organisms.

Title: The Interstitium - In 2015, doctors discovered a previously unknown organ in the human body called the interstitium. It is a fluid-filled tissue that surrounds other organs and connects them. - The interstitium makes up over 25% of the fluid in the human body, more than 4 times the amount of blood. It contains water, glucose, hormones, proteins, and hyaluronic acid. - Scientists initially missed the interstitium because the tissue collapsed and appeared as "cracks" when slide samples were made. New imaging technology allowed doctors to see the honeycomb structure of spaces and fluid in living tissue. - The interstitium may help explain how acupuncture works and provides a bridge between Western and Eastern medicine. Experiments showed improved health outcomes when acupuncture needles were placed along interstitial pathways. - Cancer researchers realized tumors spread by moving through the interstitial highways, not by "ripping" through tissue as previously thought. New treatments target cells that exploit the interstitium to spread. - The interstitium connects organs and may have immune or metabolic roles that impact many diseases. Its discovery changes our understanding of anatomy and could unlock new medical insights. In summary, the recent discovery of the interstitium, a major fluid-filled tissue in the body, bridges Eastern and Western medicine and provides clues to understanding and treating diseases in revolutionary new ways.

Episode Title: Funky Hand Jive - Radiolab host Robert Krolovich recounts shaking hands with President John F. Kennedy as a teenager and wonders if any of JFK's bacteria remained on his hand. - Krolovich teams up with producers to recreate the handshake using astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson as a stand-in for JFK. - Microbiologist Jack Gilbert takes swabs of Krolovich's and Tyson's hands before and after they shake hands to analyze the bacterial transfer. - Contrary to expectations, Tyson's bacteria fail to colonize Krolovich's hand, while Krolovich's bacteria successfully invade and persist on Tyson's hand. - This anomalous result is likely due to an opportunistic streptococcus bacteria on Krolovich's hand that disrupted Tyson's normal hand bacteria, allowing Krolovich's bacteria to thrive. - The microbiome science reveals we harbor unique lifelong bacteria strains acquired from our mothers and early environments. Handshake bacterial swaps are usually transient but Krolovich's bacteria persistently inhabited Tyson's hand.

Title: Toy Soldiers - The war in Ukraine has been going on for over a year and a half, much longer than expected. Russia should have defeated Ukraine quickly on paper, but Ukraine has held out. - A key reason is Ukraine's use of cheap commercial drones, which give them incredible battlefield awareness. Ukraine is sending 10,000 drones up per month. - These drones hover at low altitudes and provide live video feeds to bunkers, allowing precise targeting of Russian troops. Ukraine uses the drones with artillery to devastating effect. - Russia has adapted by using more drones itself, as has the U.S. military. Drones are changing how war is experienced, with soldiers now able to see their enemies up close. - It's an open question whether this visibility leads to more sympathy or hatred of the enemy. Some Ukrainian drone operators have held fire to allow grieving Russian soldiers to collect dead comrades' belongings. - In the future, drone swarms with AI could conduct attacks autonomously, removing humans from lethal decisions. This technology may arrive soon given rapid advances.

- The episode is an update to Radiolab's 2018 "Border Trilogy" series about the US-Mexico border. It focuses on what has and hasn't changed since the original series aired. - Migrant deaths in the desert along the US-Mexico border reached a record high of 853 in fiscal year 2022, up from 568 in 2021. This is likely an undercount. The harsh terrain and heat continue to kill migrants who attempt to cross. - Border crossings fluctuate seasonally and with global events, but the overall trend is upwards. There were over 232,000 crossings in August 2022, up from 133,000 in June. Enforcement policies likely have little effect on overall numbers. - The Biden administration is continuing deterrence strategies like border walls and pushing migrants into dangerous areas, despite acknowledging they don't work. An additional 20 miles of border wall is being built. - Texas' Operation Lone Star has spent $4.5 billion on deterrence with little effect on migration. It involves National Guard troops, razor wire, and arrests. - Hundreds of migrant families separated under Trump remain apart. Some children were placed with unrelated foster families and may have been adopted. - Ultimately, the factors pushing and pulling migrants haven't changed. The "gospel of deterrence" persists despite 25+ years of data showing it is ineffective. New approaches are needed that acknowledge the US' need for immigrant labor.

Border Trilogy Part 2 - Hold the Line This episode continues the story of border enforcement along the U.S.-Mexico border. In the early 1990s, Mexican-American students from Bowie High School in El Paso, Texas sued the Border Patrol for harassment. They won, forcing the Border Patrol to change their tactics in the city. Around this time, a new Border Patrol chief named Sylvester Reyes implemented a controversial strategy called Operation Blockade. He stationed hundreds of agents along a 20-mile stretch of the Rio Grande river to deter illegal border crossings. This led to protests and pushback, but eventually gained local support as it reduced crime. The strategy was so successful that the Clinton administration adopted it as national policy, funneling migrants away from cities and into remote desert areas. This "Prevention Through Deterrence" strategy aimed to use the harsh landscape as a natural deterrent. However, migrants kept coming, now trekking through dangerous areas. As a result, deaths in the Arizona desert skyrocketed into the hundreds per year. Scientific research showed bodies decompose rapidly, suggesting the death toll is vastly undercounted. The U.S. government was aware the strategy could increase deaths, but did not change course due to political factors. The episode explores the human costs and ethical dimensions of U.S. border policy, which continues to rely heavily on deterrence despite the ongoing loss of life. It sets up the finale about how this policy impacts migrant families.

Title: Border Trilogy Part 1: Hole in the Fence In the 1990s, Latino students at Bowie High School in El Paso, Texas began getting stopped and questioned by Border Patrol agents on school grounds and nearby streets. The school was located right on the US-Mexico border, with just a chain link fence separating it from Mexico. There was even a hole in this fence near the school that migrants would come through. The constant harassment from Border Patrol agents prompted the students, led by their teacher Juan Seibert Coronado, to learn about their civil rights. They discovered the agents needed reasonable suspicion to stop and question them, which they didn't have. The students began refusing to answer the agents' questions by invoking their Fifth Amendment right to remain silent. This led to altercations with agents, bringing more attention to the issue. The students and school staff sued the Border Patrol and won, with the court ruling the agents were violating their constitutional rights. However, this led Border Patrol to crack down on the border near El Paso to prevent migrants from crossing there. As a result, more migrants started crossing in the harsh Arizona desert, leading to many deaths. So while the students stood up for their rights, it had the unintended consequence of pushing migrants to more dangerous crossing points.

Title: The Secret to a Long Life - Time perception researchers say one way to make life feel longer is to seek novelty and avoid routine. Novel experiences create more memories, and our brain uses memories to measure the passage of time. - The producer conducted an experiment to pack her week with new experiences to see if she could make the week feel longer. She tried new foods, activities, sleeping arrangements, and more. - The week of novelty felt much longer than a typical week to her. Certain emotionally meaningful moments stretched time the most. - However, constant novelty can become tiring. Familiarity and routine also have value. - Paying close attention and appreciating the present moment can make even familiar things seem new again. Meditation can help rebel against the brain's habit of only remembering novel events. - Overall, seeking meaningful novelty, connecting with loved ones, and practicing mindfulness seem to be effective ways to expand one's experience of time and make life feel longer.

Title: Poison Control Summary: The episode explores the history and operations of poison control centers in the US. It begins with producer Brenna Farrell recounting a scary incident where her young son accidentally ingested a tube of diaper rash ointment. In a panic, she calls poison control and is relieved when they calmly reassure her that her son will be fine. Intrigued, Farrell investigates the origins of poison control. The first center was started in Chicago in the 1950s by a pharmacist named Louis Godalman. As new commercial cleaning products flooded the market, doctors began consulting Godalman on poisoning cases. His index cards of product information became the basis for the poison control center. The episode discusses how poison control operates today. Specialists field constant calls, providing expert advice and reassurance. Their calm demeanor is crucial. The specialists share dramatic stories, from accidental poisonings to suicide attempts. Poison control handles millions of cases per year. The rise of poison control centers parallels our complex relationship with poisons over centuries. We've evolved from using poisons for murder to embracing them as cleaning products and medicines, requiring infrastructure to manage accidental poisonings. While calls are declining with the internet, human interaction remains vital in emergencies. Poison control continues working behind the scenes to calmly guide people through crises.

Title: Smog Cloud Silver Lining - Cargo ships used to emit a lot of sulfur dioxide pollution, which contributed to acid rain. But it also had a cooling effect by seeding more clouds over the oceans. - Recent regulations forced ships to burn cleaner fuel, reducing sulfur dioxide emissions. This had an unintended consequence - temperatures in parts of the North Atlantic spiked since there were fewer cooling clouds. - This provides an opportunity to study the impact of reducing ship sulfur emissions. It acts as a natural experiment showing the cooling effect of the polluting clouds. - Some argue this shows we should research "geoengineering" - intentional manipulation of the environment to counteract climate change. This could involve creating clouds or reflecting sunlight. - But geoengineering is controversial. It may have unintended consequences we can't predict. And it could distract from reducing CO2 emissions, which is the real solution. - We may eventually need short-term geoengineering for heat relief in some regions. But we must be very cautious in considering manipulating the global climate. - Overall this situation shows how complex climate change is. Reducing pollution led to rapid warming illustrating the scale of the problem. But it also creates an opening to learn more.

- The episode begins with a discussion of how artificial intelligence and automation are raising new ethical dilemmas, using the example of self-driving cars potentially having to make life-or-death decisions in crash scenarios. - It then revisits an older episode about the "trolley problem" thought experiment, where people have to choose whether to sacrifice one person to save many others. Studies using fMRI scans found that different parts of the brain lit up when presented with different versions of the problem. - The episode argues that with the advent of autonomous vehicles, the trolley problem is becoming very real. Car companies and programmers are grappling with how to program self-driving cars to respond in crash scenarios. Surveys show people want cars to minimize harm, but not at their own expense. - There are no easy answers, but the episode suggests industry-wide collaboration will be needed to develop ethical guidelines. It notes Germany has released guidelines stating self-driving cars cannot discriminate based on human traits. - The episode concludes that reducing traffic deaths is a moral imperative, but the rare instances where autonomous cars choose who dies will still feel premeditated and dark. New technology is forcing society to confront age-old moral dilemmas.

- The idea that people are "born gay" or "born this way" became popular in the 1990s, but has origins going back decades earlier. - In the 1950s-60s, gay rights groups argued homosexuality was natural and immutable to counter the mainstream view it was a mental illness. They collaborated with scientists to research biological causes. - In the 1970s-80s, gay rights lawyers used scientific evidence in court to argue for civil rights protections based on immutability. The "born this way" argument was useful legally and shifted public opinion. - In 1993, Dean Hamer published famous research finding a genetic correlation with male homosexuality. This gave scientific backing to the "born this way" idea. - The idea became very mainstream in the 1990s-2000s, promoted by activists, celebrities, and politicians. Public opinion polling showed a strong link between believing homosexuality is immutable and supporting gay rights. - In the 2010s, new research challenged "born this way." Sexuality was found to be more fluid, especially for women. Genetics were found to play only a small role. The idea began "unraveling." - Some now see "born this way" as scientifically inaccurate, legally unnecessary, and unjust, as it implies being LGBTQ is abnormal. The idea remains politically useful but is on shakier ground scientifically.

Episode Title: Touch at a Distance - Sound can be thought of as a form of touch at a distance. When sound waves enter our ears, they cause vibrations that are transmitted to our brain through electrical signals. - Tone languages like Mandarin Chinese utilize pitch to convey meaning. Studies show that young tone language speakers are much more likely to have perfect pitch compared to non-tone language speakers. This suggests tone languages may enhance musical abilities. - There appear to be universal melodies used by parents when speaking to infants across languages - rising pitch for praise, falling pitch for prohibition, high pitch to call attention. This implies an innate musicality in parent-child vocal communication. - In 1913, Stravinsky's dissonant Rite of Spring caused riots at its premier. But one year later it was well received. This demonstrates the brain's ability to adjust to challenging new music over time by learning to find order in disorder. - The transition of sound waves into electrical signals and dopamine in the brain helps explain music's power to make us feel euphoria or discomfort. As our brains decode music, we can learn to love even highly dissonant pieces.

Title: Rumble Strip Finn and the Bell The podcast episode tells the story of Finn Rooney, a high school student in the small town of Hardwick, Vermont. Finn was known for bringing people together and wanting to strengthen his community. As student body president, he had the idea to bring back an old bell that used to hang in the belfry of the town's former high school. The bell would ring out after sports victories and other achievements so that the whole valley could celebrate together. Tragically, Finn died by suicide in early January 2020, shocking the community. In the wake of his death, the bell project took on new meaning as a way to honor Finn's legacy. The town of Greensboro donated their old school bell, which was brought to Hazen Union High School in a convoy led by Finn's friend Alex in his bright red truck. The bell was installed at Hazen, ringing out for the first time on the anniversary of Finn's death. For the community, it represents Finn's spirit and his dream of bringing people together. The bell continues to ring for sports wins, parades, and other occasions. For Finn's mother Tara, hearing the bell brings a mix of joy and sorrow, like a hug from Finn. On his birthday, she rang the bell over and over, feeling like it said what it needed to say. The bell carries forward Finn's legacy of community and connection in Hardwick.

Title: The Wubi Effect - Typing Chinese characters presented a major challenge in the 1970s-80s as computers didn't have enough memory to store the large Chinese character set. Some advocated abandoning characters entirely. - Professor Wang Yongmin dedicated himself to solving this problem to save Chinese writing. He broke down characters into common components and assigned them to keys, allowing Chinese to be typed on a standard QWERTY keyboard. His method was called Wubi. - After Wang's success, many other input methods proliferated, competing on speed. Methods evolved from character components to phonetic spelling using pinyin. - The Chinese government promoted phonetic input for political reasons, to unify pronunciation, despite shape-based methods like Wubi being faster. - Typing methods shape culture. The "QWERTY effect" makes people favor letters on the right side of the keyboard. Chinese "cloud input" uses AI to suggest characters, influencing users. - Chinese input technology has leapfrogged the West. Methods once seen as preserving characters now imperil them as users forget how to write them. Yet Chinese retains its logographic writing system.

Title: The Internet Dilemma - The episode explores Section 230, a provision of a 1996 law that shields internet companies from liability for content posted by users. This law enabled the growth of the internet, but also allows harmful content to spread unchecked. - It tells the story of Matthew Herrick, who was harassed and threatened by an ex using fake Grindr profiles. Grindr ignored his pleas for help, citing Section 230. - The law was passed to protect "good Samaritan" sites trying to moderate content, after a case where Prodigy was punished for moderation while a hands-off site wasn't. - It has created a legal shield that allows sites like Facebook to largely avoid responsibility for user content. Some conservatives and progressives want Section 230 reformed or repealed. - However, removing Section 230 could either lead to more aggressive moderation by tech companies, or a "Wild West" internet with no moderation at all. Both could stifle innovation and free speech online. - The Supreme Court recently declined to make major changes to Section 230 for now. There are no easy solutions, but many agree the 1996 law is outdated and needs rethinking in the modern era.

Title: Right to be Forgotten The episode explores the concept of the "right to be forgotten" - the idea that people should be able to request that information about them be removed from the internet. It starts by looking at the case of a lawyer in Ohio who had a minor criminal charge expunged from court records, but found that news articles about the charge still appeared in Google searches of his name. He asked the website Cleveland.com to remove the articles under their new "right to be forgotten" policy. The episode then examines a monthly meeting at Cleveland.com where editors debate requests to remove articles. They consider factors like time passed, severity of crime, and potential future relevance. One difficult case involves a police officer who embezzled money. In Europe, there are laws granting the right to be forgotten, stemming from a case where a man wanted an old news story about his bankruptcy removed. The EU court ruled search engines must comply with takedown requests of outdated or irrelevant information. US newsrooms are struggling with the ethics of removing content, trying to balance public record versus potential harm. Some limit what arrest info they publish initially. Cleveland.com keeps a spreadsheet of deleted names. One man tells his story of getting articles about his indecent exposure conviction removed, detailing the shame for his family. He wrote to Cleveland.com, which decided to fully delete the stories. The impact on the victims is considered. Overall the episode explores the complexities around forgetting in the digital age and news organizations' evolving approaches to removing content.

Title: Little Black Holes Everywhere - In 1908, a massive explosion flattened 800 square miles of forest in Siberia in what is known as the Tunguska event. Scientists could not find any evidence of what caused it. - One theory is that it was caused by a tiny "primordial" black hole left over from the Big Bang, the size of an atom but with the mass of an asteroid. These black holes could intersect with Earth as they move through space. - If a primordial black hole hit Earth, it would suck in molecules from the atmosphere, heat them up, and create a bright flash of light and enormous shockwaves - similar to witness accounts of Tunguska. It would leave a thin, glass-like tunnel through the Earth. - Physicist Stephen Hawking proposed the idea of "Hawking radiation" - that black holes emit particles that contain information about what's inside them. This radiation creates a glow around the black hole. - The story inspired producer Molly Webster to write a children's book, "Little Black Hole," about a lonely little black hole who realizes through her Hawking radiation that her friends are still with her.

Three dendrochronologists (scientists who study tree rings) meet at a bar during a conference and come up with an idea to combine their research. Grant Harley had discovered very narrow rings in pine trees in Florida, indicating the trees were stressed. He theorizes the narrow rings represent hurricanes. Marta Dominguez del Mas studies shipwrecks and suggests combining the shipwreck data with Grant's tree ring data. More shipwrecks would confirm more hurricanes. They acquire shipwreck data from 1492-1825 and find it matches Grant's hurricane tree ring years, confirming his theory. The tree rings triple the amount of historical hurricane data we have for the region. Looking at the data, Valerie Truhey notices a 70-year lull in shipwrecks/hurricanes from 1645-1715. She recognizes it as the Maunder Minimum, a period of low solar activity and cooler temperatures. Grant connects the lull to the Golden Age of Piracy in the Caribbean, as fewer hurricanes meant better conditions for pirates. The Maunder Minimum's cooler period also enabled the Sugar Revolution and expansion of the slave trade in the Caribbean, kickstarting capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. So the subtle climate impact of a weaker sun shaped world history. Today's human-caused climate change could have even greater rippling effects.

Title: Man Against Horse - The episode explores the theory that humans evolved to be great endurance runners as a way of hunting prey on the African savanna. - The theory was first proposed by evolutionary biologist Daniel Lieberman, who argues that humans developed anatomical adaptations like arched feet, Achilles tendons, and large butt muscles to enable long distance running. - This running ability allowed humans to chase down prey animals over many miles until the animals overheated and collapsed from exhaustion. Then the humans could kill the animal and eat it. - The theory seems far-fetched today, but Lieberman says there is a race in Arizona called Man Against Horse where humans compete against horses in a 50 mile endurance run through the desert. - In the 36 years of the race, a horse had always won until runner Nick Cory finally beat the horses in 2021 with a time of 6 hours 14 minutes. - Cory used a slow and steady pacing strategy to eventually outlast the horses who had to stop periodically for vet checks during the race. - The episode explores whether Cory's win supports Lieberman's theory about human evolution or if there are other explanations for our running ability. - In the end, the episode concludes that either way, the human butt played a key role in enabling endurance running and hunting success.

The episode explores Richard Feynman's famous question - if all scientific knowledge was destroyed in a cataclysm and you could only pass on one sentence to the next generation, what would it be? Feynman's own answer was "all things are made of atoms." The episode features various artists, writers, musicians, and thinkers sharing what their "cataclysm sentence" would be. Some of the sentences shared include: - "You know more than you can say" - Nicholson Baker - "The only things you're innately afraid of are falling and loud noises. The rest of your fears are learned and mostly negligible." - Cord Jefferson - "We are each allotted a sliver of space-time wedged between not yet and no more, which we fill with the lifetime of joys and sorrows, immensities of thought and feeling..." - Maria Popova - "God is a female" - Lady Pink The episode explores how different people would try to encapsulate the most important information or wisdom to pass on. It highlights the challenge of condensing all of human knowledge down to one sentence. In the end, technology pioneer Jaron Lanier argues for passing on nothing, having faith in humankind's ability to rediscover knowledge. Composer Missy Mazzoli creates a musical "primordial chord" that requires three people to play, symbolizing the need for connection and community. The episode is a thought experiment about what is most important to preserve and pass on, and what future generations might need to know. It explores creativity, philosophy, science, spirituality, and what it means to be human.

Title: Americanish - The episode explores the question of whether people born in American Samoa should automatically become U.S. citizens. Currently, American Samoa is the only U.S. territory where people born there do not automatically become citizens. - The history of how American Samoa became a U.S. territory is discussed. In the late 1800s, the U.S. Navy made an agreement with Samoan chiefs to use the islands as a strategic harbor in exchange for protection. - In the early 1900s, the Supreme Court ruled in the Insular Cases that the Constitution did not fully apply to territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and American Samoa. This created an ambiguous legal status for these territories. - The episode focuses on the perspectives of different American Samoans on citizenship. Some support it as a civil right, while others see it as a threat to Samoan culture and communal land ownership. - Blood laws that restrict land ownership to those with 50% Samoan ancestry are discussed as unconstitutional but also protective of Samoan lands. - The host explores the tensions between individual rights and protections under the Constitution versus communal rights and Samoan traditions. - Those interviewed express complex and nuanced views, weighing citizenship and equality with preservation of Samoan culture and community. There are arguments on both sides of the citizenship debate. - The episode raises thought-provoking questions about belonging, rights, culture and the meaning of citizenship without coming to any definitive conclusions.

Title: Beware the Sand Striker In this episode, writer Sabrina Imbler reads an essay about the sand striker, a predatory marine worm that buries itself in ocean sediment and ambushes fish with its sharp mandibles. Imbler parallels the stealthy hunting techniques of the sand striker to experiences of sexual assault while blacked out from drinking. Imbler reflects on several college encounters where they were too incapacitated to consent to sexual activity, but did not view it as assault at the time. After reading Chanel Miller's impact statement in the Brock Turner case, Imbler grapples with whether they were victimized. Legally, one cannot consent while incapacitated. However, Imbler struggles with not remembering details and blaming themselves. The metaphor of the sand striker highlights the unseen threat that predators can pose, both in nature and human society. Imbler wishes the men involved had recognized their incapacitation and acted as a safety net, rather than taking advantage. The essay concludes that while systems can be cruel, individuals must hold themselves to a moral standard and show empathy. Just as fish evolved defense strategies, people must evolve to create an ethical society.

Paragraph 1: The episode explores controversial aerial surveillance technology developed by Ross McNutt, an ex-Air Force engineer. McNutt created a system called "Project Angel Fire" that used planes fitted with high-powered cameras to take constant aerial photos of entire cities. It was first used by the military in Iraq to track down insurgents planting roadside bombs. Paragraph 2: After leaving the military, McNutt adapted the technology for domestic police use to combat crime in US cities. He tested it in Dayton, Ohio in 2012 and it proved effective in solving crimes. But when the police proposed implementing the system, there was backlash from the public concerned about privacy violations. The city decided not to move forward with it. Paragraph 3: McNutt then took the technology to Ciudad Juárez, Mexico which was facing rampant cartel violence. It was used to help take down a major cartel by tracking murders back to cartel headquarters. This made the Radiolab hosts reconsider the potential benefits of the controversial technology. Paragraph 4: In secret, McNutt brought the technology to Baltimore for a few months in 2016, supported by wealthy backers. It was used to assist police in investigating murders and led to arrests. But its admissibility in court is still in question. The technology raises serious civil liberties concerns and will likely lead to extensive legal debate around aerial surveillance of US cities.

Title: The Seagulls - In 1972, George Hunt and Molly Warner discovered an unusual number of eggs in seagull nests on Santa Barbara Island off the coast of California. Further investigation revealed that around 10% of nests contained female-female pairings of seagulls. - This was the first scientific documentation of same-sex pairing in wild animals. The discovery challenged the prevailing scientific view that homosexuality was unnatural. - The seagull study received widespread media attention and was embraced by the gay rights movement in the 1970s as evidence that homosexuality existed in nature. - Over the next decades, hundreds more instances of same-sex behavior were documented across the animal kingdom, demonstrating the naturalness of homosexuality. - The seagull study is credited with opening the floodgates to this research. However, the same-sex pairing in seagulls was likely an aberration caused by chemical pollution, rather than a natural occurrence. - The story illustrates how the search for belonging can lead us to over-interpret anomalies in nature. But queer relationships have inherent worth, regardless of what occurs in other species.

Title: On the Edge - The episode tells the story of Surya Bonaly, a French figure skater who was one of the few black athletes in the sport in the 1990s. - Bonaly had an athletic and powerful skating style that was very different from the more graceful and balletic style favored by judges at the time. She consistently received low scores for artistry despite landing very difficult jumps. - Bonaly felt she was unfairly judged due to her race and style. At the 1994 World Championships, she refused to stand on the medal podium after controversially losing the gold medal. - At the 1998 Olympics, despite injuries, Bonaly performed an illegal backflip as a final act of defiance. She was the only person to ever land the move and it was later named after her. - Bonaly retired after 1998 without an Olympic medal. She is credited with influencing the sport to focus more on athleticism, though figure skating has not seen another black athlete rise to prominence since.

Episode Overview: Alex Neeson explores the origin of her last name and traces her family history from slavery to the present day. Key Points: - Alex has always felt a strong attachment to her last name, Neeson, which provided a sense of identity and roots for her family. - After her grandfather passed away, she discovered his father was listed as Wilson Howard, not Neeson. This led her on a quest to uncover where the name Neeson came from. - With help from a genealogist, Alex pieced together clues and records to identify her enslaved great-great-great grandfather Levi Neeson. - She learned Levi was sold as a sick child to a white slave-owning family named Neesom. This is likely where the name originated. - Alex visited the land in Louisiana where Levi was born into slavery. She grappled with the horror of this history and her family's trauma. - Levi kept the name Neeson after emancipation. Generations of Alex's family held onto the name, giving it new meaning. - The name anchored her family, even through detours and separation, connecting Alex to her history. She reflects on reclaiming the name's origins with pride.

Title: The War on Our Shore - In late 1944 and early 1945, Japan launched over 9,000 bomb-carrying balloons across the Pacific towards North America. This was in retaliation for the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo in 1942. - The balloons were designed to utilize the jet stream to reach the U.S. Their goal was to start forest fires and create terror. However, most either failed to reach North America or caused little damage when they did. - One balloon bomb landed near Bly, Oregon in May 1945, killing 6 people on a church picnic outing. This was the only known fatality from the balloon bombs. - To prevent panic, the U.S. government imposed press censorship about the balloon bombs. As a result, most Americans did not know it was happening. - The program highlights the moral dilemma of how to ethically treat enemy prisoners of war. The U.S. chose to follow the Geneva Conventions for German POWs beyond the letter of the law, even when Nazi Germany did not reciprocate for American POWs. - Racism likely played a role, as Japanese-American citizens were being interned in poor conditions at the same time. However, having international rules like the Geneva Conventions allowed the U.S. to take the high road. In summary, the episode explores little-known WWII events on U.S. soil and the complex morality around treating enemy combatants humanely, even without reciprocity.

- The episode features Ali Ward, host of the comedy science podcast Ologies, exploring the topic of dark matter. - Dark matter makes up about 25% of the universe, compared to only 5% that is normal visible matter. But we know very little about what dark matter actually is. - The concept of "missing mass" in galaxies was first proposed by astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s. He coined the term "dark matter." - In the 1970s, astronomer Vera Rubin provided further evidence through calculations showing galaxies would fly apart without the gravity of dark matter. - Particle physicists have theorized dark matter could be a new undiscovered particle predicted by extensions to the Standard Model. But experiments have not yet found these particles. - Other theories exist like dark matter being tiny primordial black holes, made of "dark atoms", or even an unknown form of life. But none have panned out so far. - Dark matter remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics and astronomy. Theorists like Flip Tanedo continue to propose creative ideas to try to unravel what it could be.

Title: The Golden Rule - The podcast discusses a game show called "Golden Balls" where contestants must choose to either "split" or "steal" a cash prize. If both choose "split" they share the prize. If one chooses "split" and the other "steal", the stealer gets the whole prize. If both choose "steal", neither gets anything. - Typically, contestants promise to split but end up stealing, showing people's tendency to not want to be the "sucker" who splits while the other steals. - One contestant, Nick, said he would steal no matter what, forcing his opponent Ibrahim to split. This resulted in them splitting the prize, even though Ibrahim later admitted he planned to steal. - Nick's strategy forced Ibrahim to make the moral choice against his wishes. The podcast argues this was a victory in bringing out Ibrahim's goodness, despite his intentions. - The game highlights the tension between self-interest and the greater good. Nick's stubbornness prevailed in making the outcome mutually beneficial, despite Ibrahim's distrust and initial wishes.

Title: Corpse Demon - Zoroastrianism is a religion that practices "sky burials", leaving bodies exposed for vultures to consume. This prevents the spread of disease and returns the body to nature. - In the 1990s, vultures started mysteriously dying off in India. Biologist Munir Virani investigates and finds the vultures are suffering kidney failure. - Virani discovers the vultures are being poisoned by diclofenac, a painkiller given to cattle. The vultures eat the cattle and die. - Diclofenac causes kidney damage in vultures the same way NSAIDs like ibuprofen can damage human kidneys. - Virani's team proves diclofenac is killing the vultures by feeding it to baby vultures, who then die. - India, Pakistan and Nepal ban veterinary diclofenac use and vulture populations recover. But sky burials are still disrupted. - The story illustrates unintended consequences and interconnectedness in nature and medicine. Reducing pain in cattle led to mass vulture die-offs.

- The podcast discusses the history and evolution of abortion pills Mifepristone and Misoprostol. Originally, abortions were surgical procedures done in clinics. - In the 1980s, Mifepristone was developed in France as a progesterone blocker to prevent implantation. Misoprostol was discovered in Brazil as an ulcer medication that caused contractions to expel pregnancy tissue. - When combined, Mifepristone and Misoprostol created a highly effective and safe medication abortion option. The pills were approved in the US in 2000 but with strict regulations on administration. - Over time, doctors experimented with lower doses and later gestational limits. The process became streamlined by removing certain required tests and exams. - During the COVID pandemic, telemedicine allowed medication abortions to be accessed via video chat without an in-person visit. This radically increased access. - Research shows telemedicine medication abortions are just as safe and effective as those done in clinics. A European doctor even provides pills by mail with good outcomes. - The trajectory is towards self-managed abortions with little to no direct doctor involvement, putting control in patients' hands. The science enables taking abortion out of institutions.

Title: The Library of Alexandra - The website Sci-Hub, created in 2011, provides free access to nearly all academic papers and journals, bypassing paywalls. It was created by Alexandra Elbakyan, a programmer from Kazakhstan. - Sci-Hub represents a decades-long fight for open access to scientific research. Supporters see it as a way to spread knowledge freely. Critics argue it infringes copyrights. - Sci-Hub's roots trace back to Aaron Swartz, who was indicted in 2011 for mass downloading journals. He later died by suicide. - Elbakyan created Sci-Hub as a "game" to help researchers get papers. It quickly grew in popularity globally. Publishers sued her for $15 million in damages. - In 2020, Elbakyan made a rare court appearance in India through lawyer Nilesh Jain to try to legitimize Sci-Hub. The case has been bogged down since. - Open access to research has gained momentum lately. But Elbakyan's legal troubles have limited her life. The future of Sci-Hub and Elbakyan remains uncertain.

Title: The Good Samaritan - In 2017, EMT Scotty Whiteman responds to an overdose call in Kentucky. When he arrives, he finds a man passed out and wet on the kitchen floor. - After loading the overdose victim into the ambulance, Scotty suddenly feels ill himself. His partner administers Narcan, an overdose reversal drug, and rushes Scotty to the hospital. - It appears Scotty may have absorbed fentanyl through his skin when touching the wet overdose victim. There have been numerous reports nationwide of first responders collapsing after contact with fentanyl at overdose scenes. - The opioid epidemic has hit rural communities like Scotty's hard. He feels the overdose victims should be held accountable for endangering him and other first responders. - Prosecutors charge the overdose victims with wanton endangerment. But Kentucky has a Good Samaritan law that provides immunity for people who call 911 to report an overdose. - There are questions about whether skin contact with fentanyl can truly cause an overdose. Some believe Scotty may have experienced a psychogenic reaction influenced by fears about fentanyl. - One overdose victim pleads guilty, but Scotty insists on taking his case to trial. The outcome may influence whether people are willing to call 911 to save a life in the future.

Title: Alone Enough Kat Jaffe was diagnosed with ovarian cancer at the start of the pandemic in 2020. Due to lockdowns and social distancing, she underwent treatment alone. To cope, she became obsessed with bikepacking - a sport that combines biking and backpacking where riders carry all their gear and ride long distances alone. After recovering, Kat competed in a 1200 mile bikepacking race alone across Kyrgyzstan. The isolation of bikepacking gave her a sense of freedom from cancer. However, the sport's ethos of self-reliance was challenged when top bikepacker Lael Wilcox had her record attempt on the 800+ mile Arizona Trail invalidated. Officials said her wife Rue's presence as media crew gave her an "emotional advantage", violating the rule of self-support. Lael felt her ride was still self-supported, as Rue gave no physical help. She argued seeing Rue inspired women and didn't make the ride easier. Rue felt her presence may have slowed Lael down. Other top bikepackers agreed emotional support aids performance. Scientists confirmed loving support activates brain regions that reduce stress and make threats feel less dire. Kat initially resisted this view, but came to embrace human connection as beneficial. The debate illustrated how alone and supported approaches both have value. Lael plans to race next season without Rue, letting her solitude skills shine.

Title: Apologetical - The episode explores the meaning and impact of apologies in modern society. It traces the history of apologies from religious traditions of repentance to secular apology laws that emerged in the late 20th century. - In 1986, Massachusetts passed the first "apology legislation" which protected people legally if they apologized after an accident. This allowed people to express empathy without admitting fault. Many other states followed with similar laws. - However, these laws also allowed companies and lawyers to use apologies strategically, to admit fault without legal consequences and reduce liability costs. The sincerity of corporate apologies became questionable. - The episode recounts the story of Leilani Schweitzer whose son Gabriel died at Stanford Hospital after a medical error. The hospital fully disclosed mistakes, apologized, and maintained an open relationship with Leilani. She never sued and later worked there. - Although financial motivations were likely involved, the apology gave Leilani comfort and allowed genuine human connection. The episode suggests a new model of apology focused on shared values rather than legal protections. - It concludes that the complexity of modern apology reflects a broader search for meaning and morality in secular society, beyond just competition and economics. The call to apologize expresses a vision of shared values and grounding.

Paragraph 1: The episode explores three stories related to buttons and their power. The first story is about the Elevator History Museum run by Patrick Carson. He reveals that close door buttons in most elevators don't actually work, disempowering people who think they can control the elevator. Paragraph 2: The second story is about Button Gwinnett, who signed the Declaration of Independence. His signature is extremely rare and valuable, making it the "Holy Grail" for autograph collectors trying to get a full set of Declaration signers. A Gwinnett signature is worth over $700,000, much more than Washington or Lincoln. Paragraph 3: The third story explores whether there is an actual nuclear "button" that can launch missiles and start a war. Historian Alex Wellerstein explains there has never been a single button with that power. The image of a president's finger on a button comes from older science fiction stories. In reality, even for the atomic bombs dropped on Japan, Truman didn't directly give the order or even know the targets. Paragraph 4: In the 1960s, nuclear policy expert Roger Fisher proposed requiring the president to kill someone to get the nuclear codes as a deterrent to starting a war. He suggested surgically implanting codes in a volunteer's heart, so the president would have to cut them out to launch an attack. His anti-button idea was rejected as too extreme. The episode explores how symbols like the nuclear button represent the terrifying ease of modern mass destruction.

- Hermit crabs are difficult to breed in captivity, so most hermit crabs sold in stores are taken from the wild. - Artist Mary Akers became fascinated with hermit crabs and wanted to figure out how to breed them. After much trial and error, she succeeded in breeding over 200 new hermit crabs one summer. - Scientist Chris Tudge was impressed that Mary could do what scientists hadn't - she was able to recreate the variable ocean conditions needed for the crabs to breed. - In studying the evolutionary tree of crabs, scientists found that the crab body shape evolved independently at least 5 separate times. - The crab shape seems well suited for adapting to change and chaos. During a period of climate change 100 million years ago, many species died off but crabs radiated and spread. - The crab body allows them to survive in diverse environments. Their legs let them walk, swim, grab prey; their flat shape hides them from predators. - If climate change continues, crabs may outlive humans due to their adaptability. Their body shape makes them well suited for chaotic change.

Title: The Trust Engineers - In 2011, Facebook noticed a spike in users reporting photos over Christmas. Millions of reports were for harmless photos miscategorized as inappropriate. - Facebook engineer Arturo Bejar investigated and found most reports were from people embarrassed by photos of themselves. They picked random reasons like "hate speech" to get photos removed. - Facebook added options for users to explain why they disliked photos, such as "embarrassing" or "bad photo." This boosted responses, revealing the real issues. - But Facebook still couldn't remove photos for being embarrassing. So they prompted users to message the photo poster directly. Few did until Facebook provided pre-written messages, increasing messages sent. - Testing variations, they found phrases like "Hey [name], please take down this photo" worked better than sorrier versions. This shows how small tweaks to language can nudge people's behavior online. - Some criticize Facebook manipulating user emotions. But Arturo argues they're just trying to facilitate communication and trust online, since nonverbal cues are missing.

Title: Golden Goose - The story begins with Senator William Proxmire, who created the Golden Fleece Award in the 1970s to call out what he saw as wasteful government spending on research projects. - One of the early Golden Fleece winners was a study on why people fall in love. Proxmire mocked this as a waste of money, but scientists argue even research that seems frivolous can lead to important discoveries. - In response to the legacy of the Golden Fleece Awards, scientists created their own prize called the Golden Goose Award to highlight how obscure-sounding research can have big impacts. - One Golden Goose winner was Baldomero "Toto" Oliveira, who studied cone snail venom in the Philippines. One component he identified became the basis for a powerful new non-addictive painkiller. - The message is that curiosity-driven basic research is valuable, even if the benefits aren't immediately clear. You can't predict where obscure studies will lead. - The awards celebrate scientists who made breakthroughs from research that was initially mocked or misunderstood. Even silly-sounding studies can make important contributions.

Title: Falling - The episode opens with the sounds of someone free falling and deploying a parachute. It explores the theme of falling in different contexts. - One story is about a neuroscientist who fell off a roof as a child and experienced time slowing down. He later studied this phenomenon in people who have near death experiences. - Another story is about a girl falling in love with a boy who has face blindness, so he doesn't recognize her each time they meet. - Physicist Brian Greene explains conceptually how gravity causes falling according to Einstein's theory of relativity. - There is a story about cats that fall out of high-rise buildings and how they reach terminal velocity after falling about 9 floors, which allows them to survive big falls. - An older woman named Annie Taylor becomes the first person to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel, seeking fame and fortune, but dies penniless. - A neuroscientist explains why we experience hypnic jerks or falling sensations as we fall asleep, relating it evolutionarily to primates sleeping in trees. - The episode ends with a physicist describing how you would fall apart and be extruded if you fell into a black hole. The episode creatively explores the theme of falling through scientific explanations, historic stories, and personal narratives.

Title: Ukraine The Handoff - In April 2022, a Ukrainian woman named Evgenia smuggled thousands of abortion pills across the Polish border to address shortages in Ukraine after the Russian invasion. - The pills were distributed to doctors around Ukraine. Originally intended as abortion pills, they were also used to treat pregnancy complications and induce labor. - The war led to an increase in miscarriages and other pregnancy issues. Doctors used the pills to help complete miscarriages and stop bleeding. - The pills enabled women to have agency over their pregnancies during turbulent war times. However, a new hospital policy required women to disclose abortions as potentially related to national security. - By the end of the episode, Evgenia had received more pill shipments. The goal is to never again be in a shortage situation like in April.

Title: Birthstory The episode begins with producers Maya and Yochai introducing the story of Tal and Amir, a gay couple in Israel who want to have children. Surrogacy is illegal for gay couples in Israel, so Tal and Amir explore options like international surrogacy. They decide to work with an agency in Nepal that provides surrogates from India to carry babies for Israeli couples. Tal and Amir provide sperm samples that are combined with donor eggs from Ukraine to create embryos. These embryos are implanted into two Indian surrogates who travel to Nepal. Both surrogates become pregnant, one with twins. When the surrogates are 6-8 months pregnant, an earthquake hits Nepal. Tal and Amir rush to Nepal to make sure the surrogates and babies are okay. The babies are born healthy. Back in Israel, the surrogacy process sparks public debate. Tal and Amir had thought the surrogates were paid $12,000, but hear reports they may get less. Producers try unsuccessfully to interview the surrogates. They do interview other Indian surrogates who say they were paid $5,000. Tal and Amir are upset by the lower payment. The surrogates say they chose this to earn money for their families and improve their lives. Though some see it as exploitation, the surrogates view it as their choice. Nepal and other countries start banning international surrogacy, but demand continues. There are no perfect solutions, but the story shows how people creatively meet their needs across borders.

Title: Ukraine Under the Counter - Vicky, a doctor in Germany, wants to help provide medical supplies to Ukrainians after the Russian invasion. She learns there is a shortage of abortion pills for Ukrainian women who have been raped by Russian soldiers. - Vicky and her boyfriend Ari connect with an "abortion pill supplier" in Africa who agrees to donate 10,000 doses of the pills. The supplier plans to hide the pills among other medical supplies on a flight to Poland. - Vicky and Ari meet the supplier at the airport in Poland. They repackage the abortion pills to hide them and transport them to a Polish warehouse. The pills are then shipped with other medical supplies to Ukraine. - In Ukraine, the shipment arrives but the abortion pills are missing. After frantic calls, the pills are found hidden in the driver's personal car. - Evgenia, Vicky's contact in Ukraine, agrees to pick up the pills in Poland and smuggle them over the border. This risky plan succeeds in bringing the pills into Ukraine. - The abortion pills reach Ukraine through an underground network of volunteers willing to take risks to provide urgent medical aid to women in war zones.

Title: Games - Games allow us to experience creativity and rules/structure at the same time. Developmental psychologist Alison Gopnik explains how young children move from pure imaginative play to rule-focused play as they grow older. - Good games balance creative possibility and constraints. For example, chess has a huge number of possible moves, but is bounded by rules. Checkers was "solved" and became predictable and uninteresting. - Games also generate drama and stories. Underdog narratives are common in sports and resonate with people. Writer Malcolm Gladwell offers a contrasting perspective, rooting for the favorite out of empathy for their struggle. - Within the rules of a game, players can reach "novelty" moments that have never happened before. This brings a sense of being truly alive and creative. Examples given include Wayne Gretzky's behind-the-back goal and Bobby Fischer's creative chess sacrifices. - Overall, games allow space for creativity and surprise within structure. The stories and emotions they produce bring deep meaning and connection to many people's lives.

The episode features poet Maria Popova guiding listeners on a poetic journey through the history of the universe. It begins before the Big Bang with Marie Howe's poem "The Singularity," envisioning everything compressed into a single point. It then jumps ahead to the appearance of flowers on Earth, with Emily Dickinson's poem "Bloom" portraying the challenges a flower faces in blooming. Next is a poem by Rebecca Elson, "Let There Always Be Light," reflecting on the discovery of dark matter and the mysteries of the cosmos. The journey ends with Tracy K. Smith's poem "My God, It's Full of Stars," about her father working on the Hubble Space Telescope. The poem captures the wonder and scale of gazing deep into space. Throughout, the poets provide imaginative perspectives on the cosmos, from its beginning to modern scientific discoveries. The episode explores how poetry can open up new ways of understanding science and the universe.

The episode explores whether human nature and behavior can fundamentally change. It features three stories: 1. Baboons in Africa were studied by scientist Robert Sapolsky. A nearby tourist lodge began dumping its garbage, which the baboons started eating. Many baboon males died after contracting tuberculosis from the garbage. With fewer aggressive males left, the remaining baboons became more peaceful and egalitarian. However, years later the baboons themselves started living at the garbage dump, disrupting their new culture. The long-term change to their nature remains uncertain. 2. Stu Rasmussen gradually transitioned to living openly as a transgender woman in the small town of Silverton, Oregon, eventually becoming mayor. The town residents overwhelmingly accepted Stu due to knowing him closely over decades. However, the town's values were challenged when outside protesters condemned Stu's identity. The town united across political lines to counter-protest in support of Stu. 3. In Siberia, foxes were selectively bred over decades to be less aggressive and friendlier toward humans. Surprisingly, this also caused unintentional changes like floppy ears and curly tails. An evolutionary biologist hypothesizes that selecting against aggression impacts early cell development, making the foxes retain juvenile traits. Some believe a similar self-domestication process occurred in humans as society grew larger and punished aggression. Overall, the stories explore how human behavior can change through group dynamics and values. But biological predispositions persist, and long-term change remains uncertain. The episode is an intriguing look at the malleability of human nature.

Title: The Flight Before Christmas - Flying on airplanes around the holidays can be a stressful experience, but also contains moments of magic and wonder. - The process of taking off and gaining altitude reminds us of the miracle of human flight. Looking down on cities and landscapes from above puts things in perspective. - Airplane food used to be much fancier, with airlines competing to serve the best meals. Cost-cutting measures like removing olives have made meals less enjoyable over time. - Engine noise and low humidity dull our senses of taste and smell at high altitudes, making airplane food seem blander. Umami flavors come through more strongly. - Farts are more frequent on airplanes due to lower cabin pressure, according to Boyle's Law. Airlines could reduce this effect by pressurizing cabins more, but it costs money. - Strange animal cargo like whales, tigers, and sloths sometimes fly on passenger planes to zoos and aquariums. Remembering this can help recapture the magic. - Air travel requires people to endure discomforts, but focusing on humanity over capitalism could improve the experience. Overall, appreciate the astonishing feat of soaring through the air.

Episode Title: Null and Void - Jury nullification is when a jury acquits a defendant they believe to be guilty because they disagree with the law the defendant violated. It's controversial, with some seeing it as an important democratic check on unjust laws, while others view it as anarchy. - The concept originated in 1670 with the trial of William Penn in England. He was clearly guilty of violating a law against public preaching, but the jury acquitted him anyway, establishing the precedent. - In the 1990s, high-profile cases like Rodney King and O.J. Simpson sparked debate about jury nullification, with some arguing black jurors were improperly nullifying based on race. - Activists have pushed to inform jurors about nullification powers, sometimes getting arrested for "jury tampering." Courts have ruled it's protected free speech. - Nullification can allow unjust verdicts, but also has advanced civil rights, like northern juries refusing to convict people helping escaped slaves. - The balance of power between the people and government is central to debates around jury nullification.

- The episode explores the question: What is the most average size that a thing could be in the universe? - To answer this, the hosts first determine the size of the smallest and largest things. - The smallest thing is the Planck length, around 10^-35 meters. This is the smallest unit of space where space-time loses its integrity. - The largest thing is the diameter of the observable universe, around 10^27 meters wide. - To find the middle, they take the geometric mean of the largest and smallest sizes. This comes out to around 10^-4 meters, or 0.1 mm, about the size of a large dust particle. - However, this measures space, not discrete objects. So they also look at the largest and smallest singular "things." - The largest star is around 10^12 meters wide. The smallest is a quark, around 10^-20 meters. - Taking the geometric mean again results in 10^-4 meters, coincidentally the same as the middle of all space. - This size corresponds to a large eukaryotic cell, the basic structural unit of complex life. - So the "middlest thing" seems to be the fundamental building block of life as we know it. This suggests life exists at the ideal size to function in the universe.

Title: More Perfect - The Political Thicket - The episode examines the Supreme Court case Baker v. Carr (1962), which Chief Justice Earl Warren later called the most important case during his tenure. - The case challenged the malapportionment of state legislative districts in Tennessee, which had not been redrawn to account for population shifts since 1901. This diluted the voting power of urban districts. - The Court had to decide whether legislative apportionment was a "political question" that the judiciary should avoid. Justice Felix Frankfurter argued it was, fearing the Court would get stuck in "the political thicket" if it intervened. - Justice William O. Douglas disagreed, believing the courts should protect minority voting rights. The swing vote was Justice Charles Whitaker. - Frankfurter lobbied Whitaker aggressively. The stress contributed to Whitaker's nervous breakdown and retirement before a decision. - Without Whitaker, the Court ruled 6-2 that apportionment was not a political question, allowing judicial oversight of districting. This expanded the Court's role. - Frankfurter believed this ruling would lead to increased politicization of the Court. The case Bush v. Gore in 2000 proved him right to those disappointed with the outcome. - Baker v. Carr enabled the "Warren Court revolution" of judicial activism in areas like civil rights. But it also opened the door to greater polarization around the courts.

The episode explores the life of Mel Blanc, the voice of iconic cartoon characters like Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, and many more. In 1961, Blanc was in a devastating car accident that left him in a coma for two weeks. One day, a doctor went to check on him and said "Bugs Bunny, how are you doing today?" To everyone's surprise, Blanc responded in Bugs Bunny's voice saying "What's up Doc?" He then proceeded to cycle through several of his famous voices. This led many to believe the characters themselves brought Blanc out of his coma. His son Noel explained that Mel would actually become the characters when voicing them, morphing his body and mannerisms. So the voices were engrained deep in his mind. Neurologists theorized that with his higher brain functions impaired after the accident, Blanc fell back on these rehearsed voices he knew so well when prompted with the name of the character. After months of recovery, Blanc returned to voice acting despite being in a body cast. He continued working for decades until his death in 1989 at age 81. His tombstone reads "That's All Folks," the famous closing line of Porky Pig that Blanc voiced for so many years. The episode explores the magic of Mel Blanc's voice acting talents and imagines what it must have been like for him to breathe life into these iconic cartoon characters.

Title: Butt Stuff - The episode explores the history and meaning behind human butts and society's obsession with them. - In the 1930s, two artists created statues called Norma and Norman that were meant to represent the "perfect" female and male bodies. They used problematic eugenics data as their model. - Norma's proportions were based on measurements gathered by the government from white women only. Data from women of color was discarded. - The measurements were intended to create standard clothing sizes for women, but the diversity of bodies resisted standardization. - Today, clothes are still designed to fit a single model, meaning they truly fit no one. This leads many to feel there is something wrong with their own bodies when clothes don't fit. - While knowledge of the arbitrary creation of "normal" bodies won't erase body image struggles, it provides a new narrative - one that rejects the notion that there is anything wrong with your body if it doesn't conform.

Title: Guts - In 1822, army doctor William Beaumont met a young man named Alexis St. Martin who had been accidentally shot in the stomach, leaving him with a fistula - a hole that allowed direct access into his stomach. - Beaumont conducted experiments by tying food to strings, inserting it into St. Martin's stomach, and observing how it digested. This allowed him to study digestion directly, something that had not been possible before. - Beaumont discovered gastric juice and its role in digestion. This overturned theories that digestion relied on a "vital force" and showed it was a chemical process. - Today, the gut remains mysterious. It contains trillions of microbes that influence digestion, immunity, and even mental health. - Studies show gut microbes can reduce anxiety and stress in mice by altering brain chemistry. Early research suggests they may have similar effects in people. - The vagus nerve connects the gut and brain. It allows signals from gut microbes to reach the brain and influence mood and behavior. - Beaumont's studies opened a window into the mysterious world of the gut. Research continues to uncover the complex links between the gut, its microbes, and the brain.

Title: The Weather Report - In 1944, meteorologist Irving P. Krick made the famous D-Day weather forecast that allowed the Allied invasion of Normandy to proceed. However, he took more credit than he deserved, as other meteorologists actually adjusted his forecast. - After being fired from his university job for ethically questionable practices like selling forecasts to Hollywood, Krick started a private weather company, seeing forecasts as a product to be sold. This threatened the government's view of weather data as a public good. - In the 1980s, Karen Clark created the first hurricane forecasting model to show insurance companies they were underpricing hurricane risk. After Hurricane Andrew hit in 1992, her model proved accurate, causing major insurance losses. - The government formed state insurance companies to cover coastal properties private insurers wouldn't. This enabled continued coastal development despite growing hurricane risks from climate change. - Now private weather companies like tomorrow.io are collecting their own data, which could provide better forecasts than government data to paying clients like cities. - There's concern that citizens may lose equal access to weather data and forecasts as private companies monetize the field, but some see profit motives driving innovation to address climate threats.

- The episode explores the theme of "black boxes" - systems where you can see the input and output, but the inner workings are a mystery. It features three stories about black boxes. - The first story is about anesthesia. Scientists have recently discovered brain wave patterns that can indicate when someone loses consciousness under anesthesia. This provides insight into the previously mysterious black box of how anesthesia works in the brain. - The second story is about a 1950s BBC radio show called "The Piddingtons", where a husband and wife duo appeared to demonstrate telepathic abilities. Their grandson tries to uncover how they did their act, but the secret remains elusive decades later. - The third story looks at metamorphosis and the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies. When caterpillars enter the chrysalis stage, their bodies essentially turn to soup and reform into butterflies. Scientists have found memories can persist through this dramatic change, but much remains a mystery. - Overall, the episode celebrates the wonder, magic and philosophical questions that arise from black boxes we have yet to fully understand. The hosts conclude we should sometimes embrace the open-endedness of a black box rather than seeking a reductive explanation that diminishes the sense of mystery.

Title: No-Touch Abortion - In the 1980s, abortions were done surgically in clinics and hospitals. This began to change in the late 1990s when abortion pills were approved in the U.S. - The "abortion pill" is actually two medications taken together - mifepristone and misoprostol. Mifepristone blocks progesterone to stop a pregnancy from progressing. Misoprostol causes contractions to empty the uterus. - Originally, there were many restrictions around the pills, like required ultrasounds, bloodwork, taking the pills in the doctor's office. This made access difficult. - Over time, doctors experimented and found the pills were effective in lower doses, later in pregnancy, and without all the previous restrictions. The process became simpler and more accessible. - When COVID hit, pills could be prescribed via telehealth without an in-person visit. This led to a huge increase in "no-touch" medication abortions. Studies found telehealth medication abortions were just as safe and effective. - Some organizations now offer abortion pills entirely by mail without any doctor involvement. Early research shows this is also generally safe and effective for early abortions. - The trajectory is towards putting abortion pills in patients' hands and removing medical gatekeepers. This could give more power and autonomy to patients. However, surgical abortions still play an important role.

Episode Title: The Theater of David Byrne's Mind - David Byrne created an immersive theatrical experience called Theater of the Mind, inspired by neuroscience experiments he read about. It takes audiences through a series of rooms and experiences based on different aspects of neuroscience research. - The show explores how our brains construct our perception of reality. We don't perceive the world objectively; our brains actively interpret sensory input based on our past experiences. This means we all experience the world slightly differently. - Our social networks are formed around similarities in how our brains work. Friends' brains process information in remarkably similar ways. We tend to become friends with people who see the world like we do. - Taking this to the extreme leads to echo chambers, where we only interact with people who think like us. We need to make an effort to get outside our comfort zones and connect with people who have different perspectives. - Our minds are continuously changing and adapting based on our experiences. We need to let go of old stories and be open to growth and change in ourselves and others. - The show ultimately highlights our intellectual humility - there is much about the machinery of our own minds that we don't fully understand or perceive accurately. But this fluidity also allows for positive change.

The episode begins by looking at triage decisions made at a New Orleans hospital during Hurricane Katrina in 2005. When the storm hit, the hospital lost power and had limited resources to evacuate patients. Doctors divided patients into groups based on their health, with the sickest patients left for last. As conditions deteriorated, some staff considered euthanizing patients to relieve their suffering. Ultimately, nearly two dozen patients were found to have been given lethal doses of drugs. This raised difficult questions about how to make ethical rationing decisions during disasters. The episode then examines efforts to develop triage protocols for future crises. In Maryland, community members were brought together to discuss different approaches. This revealed disagreements on strategies like saving the most lives versus leaving decisions to chance. Participants also struggled with removing a ventilator from one patient to give to another. The researchers concluded protocols should combine different viewpoints and introduce some randomness to remain fair. The story ends by looking at triage decisions after the 2010 Haiti earthquake. A chronic lung patient was taken off oxygen to conserve resources. The reporter intervened to get her care, only for the patient to later die in the US. This illustrated the conflict between cold logic and human compassion in rationing care. The episode concludes these life and death decisions have no perfect solutions. But we must continue striving to avoid rationing and retain our humanity when forced to make such choices.

Terrestrials is a new kids' radio series created by Lulu Miller of Radiolab. It uncovers the strangeness and wonder of the natural world right here on Earth. In the pilot episode, author Sy Montgomery tells the story of Inky, an octopus who escaped from the National Aquarium of New Zealand. - Inky was found injured by a lobsterman and brought to the aquarium where he entertained visitors. - Two years into his captivity, Inky escaped by slithering through a drain pipe to freedom. - The escape highlights how intelligent and crafty octopuses are. They are known for escaping tanks and even going on land. - Scientists have recently recognized the impressive intelligence of octopuses despite their alien appearance. - The episode ends with listeners calling in questions for Sy about octopuses. The series aims to reawaken a sense of magic and curiosity about the natural world, especially for kids but also adults. Upcoming episodes will uncover more fascinating science stories from Earth.

The podcast explores the cultural fascination with quicksand in the 1960s. In the early 20th century, quicksand was rarely depicted in films. But by the 1960s, nearly 3% of Hollywood movies featured dramatic quicksand scenes. During this time, there were serious discussions about the possibility of lunar quicksand as the Apollo missions planned to land on the moon. Martin Luther King Jr. described racial injustice as the "quicksands of racial injustice." The Vietnam War was initially referred to as a "quicksand" before later being called a "quagmire." The podcast speculates why quicksand captivated the public imagination in the 1960s. The era was defined by anxiety about exploring uncharted territories, whether space travel or social change. Quicksand represented the fear of getting sucked into these new frontiers and becoming trapped. By the 1970s and 1980s, quicksand had become a joke, appearing in cartoons and sitcoms. The podcast concludes that quicksand endures as a metaphor for broader cultural anxieties. If humans were to explore new planets again, the threat of quicksand would likely reemerge. As we enter unfamiliar terrain, quicksand continues to encapsulate a universal fear of venturing too far and getting stuck.

Title: 40,000 Recipes for Murder - Sean Eakins, CEO of Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, uses AI to discover new medicines. Their system, Megasyn, can generate molecules that could potentially treat rare diseases. - Eakins was invited to a conference on dual-use technologies that can be misapplied. As a thought experiment, he reversed Megasyn's safety filters to have it generate highly toxic molecules instead. - Megasyn generated over 40,000 molecular "recipes" for potential chemical weapons, including VX nerve agent. This demonstrated the system's dangerous dual-use potential. - Eakins revealed this capability at the conference and in a paper to raise awareness, but did not share the actual molecule data to prevent misuse. The paper caused alarm in the pharmaceutical and national security communities. - Experts note generating molecules on paper is still far from producing actual usable chemicals/weapons. But the ease of flipping the system's purpose raised concerns about dual-use AI. - Eakins argues AI systems like this cannot be classified as good or bad, but depend on the intent and choices of the users. The line between helping and harming is very thin.

Title: Rodney v. Death - In 2004, 15-year-old Gina Giese was bitten by a bat and contracted rabies. Rabies has been considered 100% fatal once symptoms appear. - Dr. Rodney Willoughby tried an experimental treatment on Gina called the Milwaukee Protocol. He put her in a medically-induced coma to buy time for her immune system to fight the virus. - After two weeks in a coma and gradually waking up, Gina survived, becoming the first unvaccinated rabies survivor. - Since then, the Milwaukee Protocol has been tried on about 30 patients worldwide, with 5 survivors. Critics argue Gina may have survived due to natural immunity, not the treatment. - Rabies remains extremely deadly, killing tens of thousands per year, but there is now hope it can sometimes be survived if the right treatment is given in time. More research is still needed to improve the protocol's efficacy. - Gina's case opened up new thinking about rabies, showing it may not need to be an automatic death sentence if the immune system can be supported in time.

Title: Gigaverse - A pizza shop owner named Adam discovers DoorDash is listing his restaurant on their app without his consent. This leads to delivery mixups that hurt his brand. - Adam's friend Ron Jon suggests exploiting a pricing error on DoorDash to make free money by continuously ordering dough balls from his own restaurant. Adam declines to do this. - Former rideshare driver Jeffrey Fung becomes obsessed with chasing "prime time" surge pricing and gaming the system to maximize earnings. This takes over his life. - When Jeffrey's car is stolen with his kids inside while doing a food delivery, he considers going back to work the next day due to a high bonus, showing his addiction to the gig economy. - Shoppers for the delivery app Shipt feel betrayed when the pay structure changes from a clear percentage to an opaque algorithm. - Shopper Willie Solis collects data showing the algorithm pays some shoppers less. But further analysis reveals the average pay stayed the same - some earned more, some less. - The episode explores how gig workers have to constantly decode ever-changing rules and algorithms to earn money, rarely with transparency from the tech companies.

Episode Title: 9-Volt Nirvana - Journalist Sally Adie tries out transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS), which sends a small electrical current to the brain, at a military training facility. - With TDCS, Adie goes from being bad at a virtual reality sniper simulation to getting 100% accuracy. - Neuroscientist Mike Weisand explains TDCS may work by boosting neural circuits related to a task when you stumble upon the right approach. - There are many DIY TDCS videos online of people using 9V batteries to stimulate their brains to enhance skills like language learning. - Experts say TDCS is promising but research is still early, with potential risks like burns or blindness from improper use. - Adie felt TDCS switched off her anxiety and self-doubt, leaving her feeling content and focused for days. - The technology raises questions about the ability to order up mental states and whether that removes gratitude and gifts.

Paragraph 1: The episode begins with the host introducing a piece made by Radiolab intern Bowen Wong called "Infinities." Wong explains that the story is about a crazy experience he had while working at a job retreat, where he suddenly became manic. He says the story will provide context for an audio recording of him being fired from this job. Paragraph 2: Wong narrates the story, beginning with being at the job retreat in West Virginia in October 2018. He describes getting bug bites during a walk, playing an intense game of Egyptian Rat Screw with coworkers, and feeling suddenly euphoric that night for no reason. Over the next few weeks, his mental state declines rapidly. Paragraph 3: Wong begins acting erratically at work, questioning finances and demanding documents. He has a meeting with his CEO and a lawyer where they lay out concerns about his behavior. Wong does not agree to the corrective measures they propose. He is fired at the end of the meeting. Paragraph 4: After being fired, Wong's mental health continues to deteriorate. He is hospitalized over New Year's, experiencing severe akathisia. In early 2019, he is diagnosed with bipolar disorder and prescribed medication. Much later, while in graduate school, Wong decides to tell the story of this experience in an audio diary format for a class. Paragraph 5: After playing the piece, the Radiolab hosts interview Wong about making the story. They discuss his motivations for revisiting this difficult time in his life, his process for crafting the narrative, and reflections on judging his past self. Wong explains that this was a genuine portrayal of his mental state at the time. The hosts emphasize that the person in the story represents Wong at a specific moment and does not reflect who he is today.

- The episode begins with clips from an old radio drama called "Escape" which presented thrilling scenarios of characters trying to escape perilous situations. - The first story is about "Little Houdini" Chris Gay, a prolific jail escape artist who escaped jail 13 times. As a child, Chris had a difficult upbringing and started stealing vehicles as a way to escape his life. He later met a woman named Missy and tried to settle down but kept getting arrested. Missy tried to help Chris but he could not stop escaping jail. - The second story looks at how Isaac Newton's insights about gravity allowed him to conceptually "escape" the separation between the heavens and the Earth. His theory showed the same physics applied everywhere and made space travel theoretically possible. - The third story is about Joe Engressia, a blind phone "phreaker" in the 1960s who could whistle at just the right frequency to route phone calls for free. As a child, Joe used the phone system as an escape from his difficult home life. He later accidentally started the phone phreaking community but was still searching for personal escape through the phone network. - The episode explores the human desire for escape through stories of physical jailbreaks, intellectual breakthroughs, and imaginative phone hacking. Despite achieving external escapes, the characters continue to seek deeper psychological or emotional escapes.

Title: The Humpback and the Killer - Marine biologist Bob Pittman witnessed an unusual interaction between humpback whales and killer whales in Antarctica. The humpbacks seemed to be protecting seals from the killer whales, who typically prey on seals. - Pittman had never seen humpbacks protect other species before. He posted about it online and received over 100 reports of similar behavior from around the world. - In most cases, the humpbacks initiate confrontations with the killer whales and drive them away, even though the humpbacks have nothing to gain. This seems altruistic. - Biologists think the humpbacks may be acting out of kin selection - they can't always tell what species is being attacked, so sometimes defend relatives. Their behavior benefits their own genes overall. - Marine biologists Nancy Black and Elisa Schulman-Janiger witnessed humpbacks defending a gray whale calf from a killer whale attack for over 7 hours, even after it died. Over 16 humpbacks joined to prevent the killers whales from feeding. - The humpbacks sacrificed feeding themselves to prevent the killer whales from eating. This level of sacrifice is hard to chalk up to just self-interest. - In another instance, humpbacks were seen gently interacting with and touching a dead gray whale calf in a way that resembled grieving behavior. - Our understanding of humpback behavior is limited. These examples suggest there may be more emotional complexity than we realize.

The episode explores the internal struggles and compromises people make when different parts of themselves want contradictory things. It features stories of people who made deals with themselves to change entrenched behaviors. Zelda was a heavy smoker for over 30 years who tried unsuccessfully many times to quit. As a last resort, she told her friend Mary that if she ever smoked again, she would donate $5,000 to the Ku Klux Klan, an organization she despised. The idea of giving money to such a hateful group was so abhorrent to Zelda that it helped her resist the urge to smoke. She never smoked again after making this "Ulysses contract." The episode explains how Nobel laureate economist Thomas Schelling has written about these kinds of self-binding compromises. The strategy is to use a present-tense negative consequence to outweigh the instant gratification of a bad habit. Another story involves two brothers, Dennis and Kai, who were both reluctant to take over their father's massage parlor business. As a way to decide, they had a tea leaf reading contest, believing lucky leaves would signify who should get the unwanted job. Dennis lost but then grew to love the work over time, suggesting he rigged the contest because he secretly wanted the job but couldn't admit it to himself. The episode explores how our present and future selves are often in conflict, and the lengths people will go to in order to force their hand and overcome self-destructive behaviors.

Title: The Gatekeeper - In 1983, Joyce Daubert saw a photo in the newspaper of a girl with a birth defect similar to her son Jason's. Jason was born missing part of his right arm and hand. - Joyce contacted the girl's family and learned they had sued the maker of a morning sickness drug called Bendectin, claiming it caused birth defects. - Joyce believed she had taken Bendectin while pregnant with Jason, so the Dauberts sued as well. Their lawyers gathered evidence like animal studies showing issues after exposure. - Right before trial, the judge dismissed the case, saying the animal studies did not meet the "Frye standard" of being generally accepted science. This gave judges power to exclude expert testimony. - The Dauberts appealed to the Supreme Court, arguing judges should not have that power over experts. The Court agreed but created a new stricter standard for scientific evidence. - Under "Daubert," judges consider things like whether methods are tested and accepted. The Dauberts still could not get to trial, as their evidence did not meet the new standard. - Though the family lost their case, the Daubert standard has become very influential, used to question forensic techniques and require DNA and other prosecutors' evidence to be scientifically validated.

Title: Baby Blue Blood Drive - Horseshoe crabs have unique blue blood that contains a special substance called coagulogen. This allows their blood to detect and trap bacteria, an ability that has helped them survive for hundreds of millions of years. - In the 1970s, scientists realized this feature could be used to test injectable medicines for contamination. Horseshoe crab blood became the standard way to ensure injectables are sterile. - Pharmaceutical companies now capture 500,000 horseshoe crabs annually along the East Coast to collect their blood. The crabs are captured, bled of about 1/3 of their blood, and then released back into the ocean. - About 15% of bled crabs die from the process. Conservationists are concerned about the impact on crab populations, which have declined over decades due to overfishing. - Scientists have created a synthetic form of the crab blood compound that could reduce or eliminate the need for crab blood. But the existing industry and regulations still rely on real crab blood. - The COVID-19 pandemic has increased demand for injectables tested with crab blood. But producers say they have ample supply and bleeding more crabs will not be necessary. - Crab populations along the East Coast have remained stable in recent years due to conservation efforts. Their interdependence with humans may be helping protect the species.

Title: My Thymus, Myself - The thymus is a small organ located above the heart that teaches the immune system to recognize "self" from "non-self." It trains T cells, immune cells that fight infection. - T cells are made in the bone marrow but migrate to the thymus for training. There, they generate random receptors to detect foreign invaders. T cells that bind too strongly to "self" are killed off. - Scientists have figured out how to transplant thymus tissue from a donor along with an organ like the heart. This allows the recipient's immune system to recognize the new organ as "self" and not reject it, reducing the need for immunosuppressant drugs. - Recently Dr. Markert and Dr. Turk did the first combined heart and thymus transplant in a baby named Easton. Thymus tissue from the heart donor was implanted in Easton's thigh. So far his new immune cells recognize the transplanted heart as "self." - If successful long-term, this dual transplant approach could allow organ transplant recipients to avoid lifelong immunosuppressive drugs. It takes advantage of the thymus' role in establishing immune tolerance.

The Galapagos Islands are located off the coast of Ecuador and were visited by Charles Darwin in 1835. His observations of the unique wildlife on the different islands led him to develop his theory of evolution. Today, the Galapagos face threats from invasive species, tourism, and climate change. Efforts have been made to eradicate invasive goats and flies that threaten native species like the Galapagos tortoise and Darwin's finches. However, it is impossible to fully restore the islands to their pre-human state. The story illustrates the constant struggle in nature and how species adapt and change over time. Even with human intervention, the evolutionary processes continue. The finches have started interbreeding in response to the fly, potentially creating a new hybrid species. While we can't turn back time, some scientists are using techniques like breeding programs to try to revive extinct species like the Pinta tortoise. Other conservationists argue we should focus efforts on protecting current ecosystems rather than trying to recreate the past. Overall, the Galapagos showcase the resilience yet fragility of nature. Despite our best efforts, we can't entirely control evolutionary forces. The islands exemplify the unending interplay between humans and the natural world.

Title: No Special Duty - In 2011, Joseph Lozito was stabbed multiple times on a New York City subway while two police officers locked themselves in the conductor's booth. Lozito sued the city for failing to protect him, but his case was dismissed because the police have no legal duty to protect citizens. - This stems from a 2005 Supreme Court case, Castle Rock v. Gonzales, where a mother's three children were killed by her estranged husband after police failed to enforce her restraining order against him. The Court ruled the police had no constitutional duty to protect her or the children. - Under tort law, there is generally no duty to rescue someone in danger. However, courts have found exceptions when there is a "special relationship" between parties, such as business-customer or parent-child. But they have declined to classify police-citizen as a special relationship. - Instead, most states use a 4-part test to establish a special duty requiring police protection. The criteria are difficult to meet and rarely applied. With no comprehensive legal code governing police conduct, courts are left to determine officers' responsibilities on a case-by-case basis. - While protecting the public is not officially part of police officers' legal obligations, most believe it is their duty and part of the job. The lack of formal mandates makes it difficult to hold officers accountable for failing to protect citizens.

Paragraph 1: Lulu Miller shares that she started noticing blood in her stool. After multiple tests, she was diagnosed with Crohn's disease, an autoimmune disorder affecting the digestive system. Her symptoms rapidly worsened, leaving her frequently needing the bathroom and unable to work or care for her kids. Paragraph 2: In her desperation, Lulu became obsessed with researching Neanderthals. She learned Neanderthals were more sophisticated than previously thought. To her they represented a long-lost sibling that could provide insights about humanity. While researching Neanderthals extensively from the bathroom, she discovered some evidence that Crohn's genes came from interbreeding with Neanderthals thousands of years ago. Paragraph 3: As Lulu's health deteriorated, she imagined Neanderthals attacking her insides to seek vengeance for being driven to extinction by humans. After an ER visit, she was hospitalized and continued researching Neanderthal genetics. She learned Crohn's predated Neanderthals and was possibly inherited from even earlier human ancestors. Paragraph 4: Lulu became fascinated by Shanidar 1, a disabled Neanderthal who was cared for by others for many years. This suggested Neanderthals had compassion and empathy. She wondered if Neanderthals gave humans the very idea of health care and humanity. However, experts said there wasn't definitive evidence to prove this theory. Paragraph 5: One discovery remained - Neanderthals possibly pioneered using aspirin. This was based on evidence of poplar leaves with pain-relieving salicylic acid found in the teeth of a Neanderthal. So while Neanderthals may not have given us hospitals and humanity, they perhaps gifted us relief from suffering.

Title: Origin Stories - The episode features the first radio stories done by hosts Lulu Miller and Latif Nasser when they started at Radiolab. Lulu's Story: A Clockwork Miracle - In 1562, the 17-year old crown prince of Spain, Don Carlos, suffers a terrible head injury after falling down stairs. He is near death. - His father, King Philip II, makes a pact with God that if Don Carlos is healed, the king will perform a miracle in return. Miraculously, Don Carlos recovers. - To fulfill his pact, King Philip commissions a renowned clockmaker to build an automaton - a robotic monk named Diego de Alcalá, after a dead friar rumored to have healing powers. - The 15-inch mechanical monk can walk in a circle, move its arms and head, and kiss a cross, giving the illusion of ceaseless prayer. It is seen as representing perfect Catholic devotion. Latif's Story: Musical Hallucinations - Some people have musical hallucinations - vivid perceptions of music that aren't really there. Brain scans show their brains light up just like when hearing real music. - It's common in older people with hearing loss, possibly because with less external sound, internal brain signals flow backwards to the ears. - A man named Leo in his 90s hears constant show tunes and pop songs, which he analyzes for hidden meanings about himself. - A psychologist says the hallucinated music interacts with people's sense of self - comforting or tormenting them based on their life stories.

The episode is a live, unedited show that Radiolab did to celebrate their 20th anniversary. It was broadcast on WNYC, their home radio station. The hosts Lulu Miller and Latif Nasser start by explaining that the show will be raw and unedited to capture the spirit of the live radio experiment. The first segment features a story from The Moth called "Are You a Member of Wash Club?" about a college student who puts up posters around campus advertising a secret "Wash Club" for people who enjoy climbing inside laundry machines. He starts getting texts asking to join but there is no real club. Next, they play listener calls about moments of joy people have experienced recently. The callers share stories about seeing a child light up when given a new toy, completing a garden, and more. After that, former Radiolab hosts Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich join remotely. Listeners call in to share how the show has impacted their lives over the years, like inspiring a smoker to quit and bringing together a bone marrow donor and recipient. Jad and Robert help pick songs to dedicate to listeners in a segment modeled after the radio host Delilah. For the big finale, they make an "Earth sandwich" by having callers in Botswana and Hawaii put slices of bread on the ground, with the Earth in between. The hosts thank all the listeners and creators who have been part of Radiolab over the past 20 years.

Title: La Mancha Screwjob - The episode explores the concept of "authenticity" in entertainment through the lens of professional wrestling. - It starts by looking at the career of wrestler Bret Hart, known for his technical skill and "real" wrestling style. Hart was a top star in the WWF (now WWE) in the 1990s. - In 1997, Hart was set to leave the WWF for rival promotion WCW. This created a dilemma about how he would lose the WWF Championship belt before his departure. - At the Survivor Series event, Hart's match ended in the controversial "Montreal Screwjob," where he lost the title under unexpected circumstances that breached wrestling's "kayfabe" (the illusion of reality). - Hart felt betrayed and punched WWF owner Vince McMahon backstage afterwards. This "real" conflict between wrestler and promoter ushered in a new era in wrestling focused on "authentic" personalities and storylines blurring fiction and reality. - The episode explores how this quest for "authenticity" in wrestling and other forms of entertainment reflects a longstanding human fascination with the nature of reality, as seen in the metafictional innovations of Cervantes' Don Quixote centuries earlier. - It suggests this impulse emerges during times of cultural crisis and intellectual upheaval, when we question the very foundations of our constructed realities.

Title: Frailmales - The episode begins with the story of a tiny tree cricket in India that sings loudly to attract mates, losing up to 20% of its body weight each night. Some crickets cheat the system by singing from inside holes in leaves, which act as natural amplifiers. Experiments show this "baffling" behavior successfully tricks females into mating with them. - Next is the story of the 1916 Cumberland vs Georgia Tech football game, the most lopsided game in college football history. Cumberland had canceled its football program but was forced to play or pay a fine. They recruited inexperienced students to play against coach John Heisman's dominant Georgia Tech team. - Cumberland was demolished 222-0, with Georgia Tech scoring on almost every possession. Cumberland players were knocked out multiple times but had to keep playing to finish the game. One player named Fishy Woods rallied the team to block a kick at the end, breaking his nose in the process. - Despite the blowout, Cumberland's ragtag team is remembered for their perseverance in saving the school from financial ruin. The game set records for largest margin of victory that still stand today.